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A  SHORT  SKETCH  OF  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE 
TO  THE  REFORMATION 


A    SHORT    SKETCH 

OF 

EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


BY 

H.  E.  MARSHALL 

Author  of  "  An  Island  Story  " 


FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE 
TO  THE  REFORMATION 


CONTAINING    TWELVE  PAGE  MAPS 


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jA 


NEW  YORK 

FREDERICK  A.  STOKES  COMPANY 
PUBLISHERS 


Printed  in 


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PREFACE 

MANY  European  histories  written  for  school  use  are  too 
long  for  careful  study  by  young  pupils  during  the  necessarily 
limited  time  allotted  to  the  subject.  Many  of  them  are 
overloaded  with  details  of  battles  and  domestic  politics 
which,  although  of  importance  in  the  thorough  study  of  one 
country,  have  little  or  no  influence  on  the  general  growth  of 
Europe.  It  is  very  important  that  students  should  realize 
as  early  as  possible  that  the  history  of  our  islands  has  at  all 
times  been  influenced  by  the  broader  movements  of  European 
history,  and  in  this  book  an  endeavour  has  been  made  to 
give,  succintly,  the  main  factors  which  have  gone  to  the 
forming  and  developing  of  the  various  European  states  from 
the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire  to  the  Reformation,  together 
with  sufficient  detail  to  enliven  that  dullness  which  is  the 
almost  inevitable  accompaniment  of  great  compression. 

As  a  good  deal  of  time  is  generally  devoted  to  the  history 
of  England  in  the  ordinary  school  curriculum,  it  has  seemed 
unnecessary  to  enlarge  on  it  here.  The  history  of  England 
has  therefore  rarely  been  touched  upon  save  when  (as  in  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  for  example)  that  country  plays  a 
prominent  part  in  the  politics  of  Europe.  On  the  other 
hand,  considerable  space  has  been  given  to  the  period 
immediately  following  on  the  fall  of  the  Roman  Empire, 

V 

4G5125 


vi  PREFACE 

that  being  a  period  somewhat  neglected,  but  which  yet 
gives  the  necessary  key  to  future  developments. 

To  aid  smooth  reading  the  dates  have  been  for  the  most 
part  relegated  to  the  margin.  In  the  case  of  rulers  the  dates 
of  the  beginning  and  end  of  their  reign  have  been  given  ;  of 
all  other  personages  those  of  birth  and  death. 


CONTENTS 


CHAP  PAGE 

I.  THE  BARBARIANS  INVADE  THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  i 

II.  THE  RISE  OF  THE  FRANKS  8 

III.  THE  BARBARIANS  RULE  IN  ROME  n 

IV.  THE  RISE  AND  FALL  OF  JUSTINIAN'S  EMPIRE — THE 

R6LE  OF  THE  EASTERN  EMPIRE  15 
V.  GREGORY    THE    GREAT    LAYS  THE    FOUNDATION  OF 

PAPAL  POWER  19 

VI.  THE  RISE  OF  MOHAMMEDANISM  22 

VII.  THE  CONQUEST  OF  SPAIN  BY  THE  ARABS  27 
VIII.  THE  DEFEAT  OF  THE  SARACENS — THE  RISE  OF  THE 

CAROLINGIANS — THE  DONATION  OF  PEPIN  32 
IX.  THE  REIGN  OF  CHARLEMAGNE — THE  BEGINNING  OF 

THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE  37 
X.  THE    TREATY     OF    VERDUN — THE    BEGINNING    OF 

FRANCE,  ITALY,  AND  GERMANY  43 

XI.  THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORTHMEN  49 

XII.  THE  NORTHMEN  IN  FRANCE  AND  ENGLAND  54 

XIII.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  RUSSIA  58 

XIV.  THE  NORMAN  KINGDOM  OF  SICILY  65 
XV.  THE   BEGINNING  OF  SCANDINAVIA  :   DENMARK  AND 

SWEDEN  68 

XVI.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  SCANDINAVIA  :    NORWAY  76 

XVII.  THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM  82 

XVIII.  TOURNAMENT  AND  FEUDAL  WARFARE  87 

XIX.  THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE  :   SAXON  EMPERORS  91 

XX.  THE    HOLY    ROMAN    EMPIRE  :    THE    STRUGGLE 

BETWEEN    POPE   AND    EMPEROR  94 

vii 


viii  CONTENTS 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XXI.  THE  PROGRESS  OF  FRANCE  TOWARDS  NATIONALITY  101 

XXII.  KNIGHTHOOD  107 

XXIII.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  CRUSADES  113 

XXIV.  THE   CRUSADES  :    THE  CHRISTIAN   KINGDOM   OF 

JERUSALEM — THE    FOUNDING    OF  THE   GREAT 
ORDERS  OF  KNIGHTHOOD  120 

XXV.  THE  CRUSADES  :    THE  LATIN   EMPIRE  OF  CON- 
STANTINOPLE 125 
XXVI.  THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  CRUSADES — THE   FALL    OF 

CONSTANTINOPLE  128 

XXVII.  THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE  :    STRIFE  WITH  THE 

POPES — COMMERCIAL  PROGRESS  132 

XXVIII.  FRANCE  :    THE  CAPTIVITY   OF   THE  POPES — THE 

BEGINNING  OF  THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR          138 
XXIX.  FRANCE  :   THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR  146 

XXX.  GERMANY  :     CONTINUED    STRUGGLES    WITH    THE 

POPE  152 

XXXI.  FRANCE  :    THE  END  OF  THE  HUNDRED  YEARS' 

WAR — THE  REIGN  OF  Louis  XI  157 

XXXII.  THE  MOORS  DRIVEN  OUT  OF  SPAIN — SPAIN  BEGINS 

TO    COUNT   AMONG   THE   NATIONS    OF   EUROPE  163 

XXXIII    CHANGES  IN  EUROPE  CAUSED  BY  THE  DISCOVERY 

OF  THE  NEW  WORLD  169 

XXXIV.  THE  PROGRESS  OF  RUSSIA  174 

XXXV.  THE  RISE  OF  SWITZERLAND  178 

XXXVI.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  ITALIAN  UNITY  SHATTERED  186 

XXXVII.  THE  STRUGGLE  BETWEEN  FRANCE  AND  SPAIN  FOR 

SUPREMACY  IN  ITALY  192 

XXXVIII.  THE  RENAISSANCE  197 

XXXIX.  THE  NEW  ASTRONOMY  202 

XL.  THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE  REFORMATION  205 

XLI.  REFORMATION  PERIOD  :    GERMANY  209 

XLII.  REFORMATION     PERIOD  :      SWITZERLAND     AND  215 

FRANCE 


CONTENTS  ix 

CHAP.  PAGE 

XLIII.  REFORMATION    PERIOD  :     ENGLAND    AND    SCAN- 
DINAVIA 219 

XLIV.  REFORMATION  PERIOD  :    SPAIN,  PORTUGAL,  THE 

NETHERLANDS,  ITALY  224 

SUPPLEMENTARY  CHAPTER  : 

THE  EFFECT  OF  AMERICAN  CONQUESTS  ON  SPAIN  228 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE  231 

INDEX                                                                 ,  239 


LIST   OF   MAPS 

PAGE 

THE  ROMAN  EMPIRE  7 

THE  TREATY  OF  VERDUN  AND  THE  MARCH  OF  THE  ARABS  47 

EUROPE  ABOUT  A.D.  noo  63 

ENGLAND  AND  THE  NORTHMEN  69 

FRANCE  IN  THE  REIGN  OF  HENRY  II  OF  ENGLAND  105 

FRANCE  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY  151 

GERMANY,  A.D.  1254  TO  I5°°  J55 

FRANCE  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY  159 
THE  WORLD,  SHOWING  THE  VOYAGES  OF  DISCOVERY  AND 

THE  POPE'S  LINE  173 
SWITZERLAND,  SHOWING  THE  GROWTH  OF  THE  Swiss  CON- 
FEDERATION 183 
ITALY  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE  187 
EUROPE  IN  THE  MIDDLE  OF  THE  SIXTEENTH  CENTURY  211 


A  SHORT  SKETCH  OF  EUROPEAN 
HISTORY 

PART  I.    FROM  THE  FALL  OF  THE 
ROMAN    EMPIRE    TO    THE   REFOR- 
MATION 

CHAPTER   I 

THE  BARBARIANS   INVADE  THE 
ROMAN   EMPIRE 

IN  the  first  centuries  of  our  era  the  one  great  power  of  the 
world  was  Rome.  All  southern  Europe  bowed  beneath  the 
conquering  sword  of  the  Romans.  Africa  and  Asia,  too, 
owned  their  sway.  For  the  Mediterranean,  the  great  trade 
route  of  the  then  known  world,  was  theirs,  and  the  countries 
bordering  upon  it  became  mere  provinces  of  Rome.  Even 
the  uttermost  islands  felt  their  might,  and  sailing  beyond  the 
"  narrow  seas,"  Caesar  set  his  hand  upon  the  island  of 
Britain.  From  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  in  the  north,  to 
the  desert  of  Sahara  in  the  south,  from  the  borders  of  Wales 
in  the  west,  to  the  Euphrates  and  the  Tigris  in  the  east,  the 
empire  stretched. 

Of  this  wide  empire  Rome  was  the  capital.     Secure  upon  A.D. 
her  seven  hills  she  sat,  mistress  of  the  world,  a  city  without 
rival,  until  in  A.D.  330  the  Christian  emperor  Constantine  the 
Great  resolved  to  build  a  new  Rome  upon  the  shores  of  the 
Bosphorus.     Constantine  called  his  new  city  New  Rome. 

I  A 


2:  A  -SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

•  But  <men  did  not' 'take  readily  to  the  name,  and  the  capital 
upon  the  Bosphorus  became  known  as  Constantinople,  or 
the  city  of  Constantine.  It  is  difficult  to-day  to  remember 
that  Constantinople  was  founded  by  a  Christian,  and  was 
at  one  time  the  bulwark  of  Christianity  against  the  Turk. 

The  Romans  called  themselves  lords  of  the  world.  And 
so  it  seemed  they  were.  All  the  trade  and  skill,  all  the  art 
and  learning  of  the  known  world,  were  theirs.  Beyond  the 
borders  of  the  Roman  Empire  the  world  was  given  over  to 
wild  barbarians,  who  were  skilled  neither  in  the  arts  of  war 
nor  of  peace.  That  the  civilization  of  Rome  should  go  down 
before  their  ignorance  seemed  impossible.  Yet  the  barbarian 
triumphed,  Rome  fell,  and  the  mighty  empire  crumbled  into 
dust. 

"  Rome  was  not  built  in  a  day,"  neither  did  Rome  fall  in  a 
day.  The  fall  was  gradual,  and  came  both  from  without  and 
from  within. 

It  came  because  there  was  tyranny  in  Rome,  and  no 
state  can  long  be  held  by  tyranny  and  the  power  of  the 
sword  alone.  The  high  officials  and  tax  collectors  cared 
nothing  for  the  people's  good,  they  cared  only  for  gold. 
They  laid  heavy  and  unjust  taxes  upon  the  middle  classes. 
These  classes  must  always  be  the  backbone  and  support  of  a 
nation,  but  in  Rome's  last  days  they  were  so  oppressed 
that  they  ceased  to  exist.  The  backbone  of  the  nation  was 
gone.  So  when  wild  barbarian  hordes  poured  over  the 
borders  of  the  empire  Rome  fell. 

395  When  the  Emperor  Theodosius  died,  about  sixty  years 
after  the  founding  of  Constantinople,  he  left  two  sons,  both 
mere  boys.  They  divided  the  empire  between  them, 
Arcadius,  the  elder,  taking  Constantinople  for  his  capital, 
ruled  over  the  Eastern  Empire,  and  Honorius,  a  child  of 
eleven,  became  ruler  of  the  Western  Empire,  with  Rome  as  his 
capital.  It  was  upon  Rome  and  the  Western  Empire  that 
the  full  force  of  the  barbarian  onslaught  fell. 


THE  GOTHS  3 

First  came  the  Goths.  These  were  Teutons  or  Germans, 
and  were  divided  into  two  tribes,  the  Visigoths  or  west 
Goths,  and  the  Ostrogoths  or  east  Goths.  They  were  tall 
and  strong,  their  eyes  were  blue,  their  hair  long  and  fair. 
They  were  lawless,  greedy,  and  treacherous.  They  came  at  376 
first  fleeing  from  the  Huns,  a  far  more  barbarous  foe,  seeking 
shelter  beneath  the  still  all-powerful  sceptre  of  Rome. 
They  found  the  protection  they  desired,  but  ere  long  they 
turned  their  swords  against  the  men  who  had  provided  it. 

The  March  of  Alaric 

Under  their  young  king  Alaric,  the  Visigoths  attacked  the 
empire  again  and  again.  Twice  Alaric  laid  siege  to  Rome. 
Twice  he  spared  the  imperial  city.  Still  a  third  time  he  410 
came,  and  this  time  he  sacked  and  plundered  it  without 
mercy.  Then,  laden  with  rich  booty,  driving  a  long  train  of 
captives  before  him,  he  turned  southward.  The  proudest 
city  in  the  world  lay  at  his  feet,  and  flushed  with  victory,  he 
marched  to  invade  Africa. 

But  an  even  greater  captain  than  the  conqueror  of  Rome 
met  him  on  the  way.  Death  laid  his  hand  upon  the  victori- 
ous Goth,  and  all  his  triumphs  were  blotted  out.  The  new 
king  of  the  Goths,  Ataulphus  son  of  the  Wolf,  did  not  follow 
up  Alaric's  triumphs.  He  turned  aside  from  Africa,  forsook 
the  wasted  plains  of  Italy,  and  marching  his  war-worn  followers 
into  southern  Gaul  and  northern  Spain,  settled  there.  414 

Meanwhile  other  barbarian  hosts  attacked  the  outposts  of 
the  empire.  For  in  a  vain  endeavour  to  guard  Italy  and 
Rome  itself  the  last  legions  had  been  called  back  even  from 
Britain,  and  the  northern  boundaries  of  the  empire  were 
left  a  prey  to  the  barbarians. 

Over  the  wall  which  stretched  from  Forth  to  Clyde  stormed 
the  Picts  and  Scots,  across  the  Rhine  and  the  Danube  poured 
wild  hordes  of  Franks,  Burgundians,  Lombards,  Allemanni, 
and  Vandals.  The  Franks  settled  in  Gaul,  and  made  it 


4  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Frankland.  The  Burgundians,  too,  settled  in  Gaul,  and 
to-day  the  fair  province  of  France  lying  between  the  Loire  and 
the  Saone  still  keeps  their  name.  The  Vandals  settled  in 
Spain,  of  which  a  province  is  still  named  Andalusia  (Van- 
dalusia).  The  Lombards,  or  Longbeards,  overran  northern 
Italy,  and  to-day  the  central  province  of  northern  Italy  is 
still  named  Lombardy.  Angles  and  Saxons  left  their  homes 
on  the  Weser  and  the  Elbe,  sailed  across  the  sea,  and  taking 
possession  of  southern  Britain,  changed  its  name  to  England. 
Every  one  of  those  barbarian  tribes  which  thus  rent  the 
Roman  empire  to  pieces  was  of  German  or  Teutonic  origin. 
And  from  the  ashes  of  fallen  Rome  a  new  Teutonic  empire 
was  to  arise.  But  meanwhile  a  foe  far  more  fierce  and 
terrible  than  any  German  tribe,  was  sweeping  onward  ready 
to  grind  to  dust  the  already  crumbling  empire.*  This  foe  was 
the  Hun. 

Attila  and  the  Huns 

The  Huns  were  a  warrior  race  coming  from  out  the  wastes 
of  Asia.  They  were  small  and  swarthy,  their  eyes  were 
dark  and  piercing,  their  noses  squat,  and  their  hairless, 
hideous  faces  were  covered  with  frightful  gashes  and  scars 
which  made  them  more  hideous  still.  They  spent  their 
lives  on  horseback,  and  rode  so  well  that  they  almost  seemed 
part  of  their  sturdy  little  ponies.  With  much  riding,  indeed, 
their  legs  were  so  bowed  that  they  could  scarcely  walk. 
They  had  no  houses,  and  few  possessions.  They  neither 
ploughed  nor  reaped,  but  lived  on  raw  flesh  and  clothed 
themselves  in  skins.  They  were  fierce,  blood-thirsty,  vile, 
and  all  men  fled  before  them  with  a  shuddering  dread. 

These  were  the  people  who,  now  led  on  by  their  mighty 
king,  Attila,  made  Europe  tremble.  Of  all  the  Huns 
Attila  was  the  most  terrible.  Though  small  of  stature,  his 
shoulders  were  of  great  breadth,  and  there  was  something 

*  See  map,  p.  7 


THE  HUNS  5 

of  kingly  authority  in  his  piercing,  evil  eye  and  loathsome, 
scowling  face.  Where  he  passed  he  left  desolation  behind 
him,  and  gloried  in  it.  "  I  am  the  curse  of  God,"  he  boasted 
proudly,  "  the  hammer  of  the  world.  Where  my  horse's 
hoofs  have  trod  the  grass  will  grow  no  more." 

Like  a  devastating  flood  the  Huns  swept  over  Gaul,  leaving 
behind  them  a  track  of  blood  and  ashes.  Town  after  town 
was  given  to  the  flames,  and  the  fair  fields  were  laid  waste. 
Then,  at  length,  forgetting  their  old  quarrels,  Roman  and 
Goth  joined  to  crush  the  common  foe.  The  Goths,  under 
King  Theodoric,  and  the  Romans  under  Aetius,  "  the  last  of 
the  Romans,"  marched  northward.  Franks  and  Bur- 
gundians,  too,  joined  the  army,  and  upon  a  plain  near 
Chalons  a  great  battle  was  fought  between  the  allies  and  the  451 
Hun. 

The  struggle  was  long  and  fierce.  Theodoric,  king  of  the 
Visigoths,  was  slain,  but  in  the  end  the  Huns  were  defeated. 
Defeated  they  were,  but  not  crushed.  Like  a  wounded 
animal  behind  the  rampart  of  his  baggage  wagons,  Atilla 
crouched,  growling  and  watchful.  So  dangerous  he  seemed 
that  the  allies  dared  no  more  attack  him,  and  content  with 
their  victory,  they  marched  homeward. 

This  fight  has  been  called  the  battle  of  the  Nations. 
And  although  the  victory  was  not  a  decisive  one,  a  great 
question  was  settled  upon  the  field  of  Chalons.  There  it  was 
made  plain  that  Europe  was  to  be  the  heritage  of  the  Christian 
Teutons  and  Romans,  and  not  of  the  pagan  Mongols. 

Attila  was  too  crippled  to  renew  the  fight,  and  sullenly  he 
recrossed  the  Rhine.  But  the  following  year,  having  452 
gathered  another  army,  he  marched  through  Italy,  leaving, 
as  was  his  wont,  a  trail  of  ruined  cities  and  devasted  plains 
in  his  wake.  Rome  was  his  goal,  but  ere  he  reached  it  his 
course  was  once  more  stayed.  For,  accompanied  by  certain 
nobles,  the  pope,  Leo  I,  came  out  to  meet  the  savage  con- 
queror. 


6  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Upon  the  banks  of  the  River  Mincio  the  misshapen  heathen 
met  the  priest  of  God.  Upon  the  one  side  there  was  religion 
and  knowledge  and  everything  that  stood  for  civilization, 
discipline,  and  lofty  aims.  Upon  the  other  there  was 
ignorance,  licence,  and  base  lust  of  blood. 

Leo  came  unarmed  to  meet  the  foe  before  whom  all 
Europe  cowered.  Yet  he  conquered.  His  solemn  words  of 
pleading  and  warning  pierced  the  heart  of  the  fierce  heathen. 
Perhaps,  too,  the  gold  which  he  brought  in  his  hand  as  a 
bribe  from  the  feeble  emperor  aided  not  a  little  the  eloquence 
of  his  words.  However  that  may  be,  Attila  yielded. 
"  Hastily,"  we  are  told,  "  he  put  off  his  habitual  fury,  turned 
back  on  the  way  he  had  come,  and  departed  with  the  promise 
of  peace." 

"  I  can  conquer  men,"  he  said,  "  but  the  Lion  (Leo)  knows 
how  to  conquer  me." 

In  this  appeal  made  by  Leo  the  Great  to  a  heathen  foe  we 
see  the  first  beginnings  of  the  enormous  power  in  worldly 
matters  which  the  popes  of  a  future  day  were  to  wield.  But 
other  arguments  besides  those  of  the  bishop  of  Rome 
hastened  Attila' s  going.  For  "  the  Huns  were  stricken  by 
the  blows  of  heaven,"  famine  and  pestilence  thinned  their 
ranks.  So,  taking  the  gold  which  was  offered  to  him,  their 
leader  returned,  perhaps  not  unwillingly,  to  his  own  borders. 
He  hoped  doubtless  to  come  again  at  another  time  to  wreak 
453  his  will  upon  Rome.  But  the  following  year  he  died.  His 
empire  fell  to  pieces,  and  the  Hun  vanished  from  Europe. 


8  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

CHAPTER  II 
THE  RISE  OF  THE  FRANKS 

IN  the  beginning  of  the  fifth  century  the  Franks  were  among 
the  many  tribes  of  Teutonic  origin  who  helped  to  dismember 
the  Roman  Empire.  They  took  possession  of  part  of  Gaul, 
which,  in  time,  became  known  as  Frankland,  and  which 
formed  the  nucleus  of  the  state  which  we  know  to-day  as 
France.  When  the  Franks  invaded  the  Empire  they  did 
so  in  a  manner  different  from  that  of  the  other  Teutons. 
They  did  not  cut  themselves  off  from  Germany.  They  did 
not  wander  far  into  the  Empire,  making  conquests  now 
here,  now  there.  They  simply  crossed  the  border,  and  taking 
possession  of  a  small  portion,  settled  there. 

Nor  were  they  like  the  Goths  and  Vandals  a  single  people 
who  marched  to  war  in  a  body.  They  were  made  up  of 
various  tribes  who  moved  about  independently  of  each  other 
and  who  settled  in  various  places.  Their  great  strength  lay 
in  the  fact  that  they  kept  their  line  of  communication  open. 
While  plundering  the  Empire  they  still  kept  in  touch  with 
the  great  unexploited  forces  of  the  heathen  world  behind 
them. 

The  chief  of  these  Frankish  tribes  were  the  Salians  and  the 
Riparians,  who  settled  in  what  is  now  Belgium.  And  it  was 
the  Salian  Franks  which  at  length  became  the  dominant 
tribe.  Their  first  king  of  any  account  was  Clovis.  He  traced 
his  descent  from  a  mythical  sea-king  called  Merovee,  and 
from  that  the  dynasty  to  which  he  belonged  is  called  the 
Merovingian  dynasty. 

481  Clovis  came  to  the  throne  at  the  age  of  sixteen.  He  soon 
set  out  upon  a  career  of  conquest,  and  in  no  long  time 
doubled  and  trebled  his  kingdom. 


THE  BATTLE  OF  TOLBIAC  9 

At  the  time  of  their  invasion  of  the  Empire  nearly  all  the 
Teutonic  tribes  were  Christian.  But  they  were  Arian 
Christians — that  is,  they  were  followers  of  Arius,  whose 
doctrine,  to  put  it  simply,  was  a  sort  of  early  Unitarianism. 
It  was  easier  for  the  uneducated  Teutons  to  understand  this 
doctrine  than  the  more  complicated  one  of  the  Trinity,  and 
therefore  they  adopted  it. 

Arianism 

Arianism  has  long  since  passed  away,  and  it  may  not  seem 
to  matter  very  much  what  those  half-civilized  tribes  believed. 
But  in  the  reconstruction  of  Europe  after  the  fall  of  the 
Roman  Empire  it  had  some  importance.  For  the  fact  that 
the  Teutons  were  Arians  made  for  them  an  enemy  in  the 
Bishop  of  Rome,  who  was  gradually  becoming  a  power  in 
temporal  as  well  as  in  spiritual  matters. 

But  although  most  of  the  barbarians  who  attacked  the 
Empire  were  Christian,  some  were  not.  Among  those  who 
were  not  were  the  Angles  and  the  Saxons,  who  took  possession 
of  England,  and  the  Franks. 

Clovis,  like  the  people  over  whom  he  ruled,  was  a  heathen, 
but  he  married  a  Christian  princess,  Clotilda,  the  niece  of  the 
King  of  Burgundy.  And  this  Clotilda  was  not  an  Arian  like 
her  uncle,  but  a  Catholic.  She  was  very  devout,  and  she 
tried  very  earnestly  to  convert  her  heathen  husband.  But 
Clovis  resisted  all  her  efforts.  He  allowed  her  undisturbed 
to  follow  her  own  religion,  but  he  was  satisfied  with  his  own 
gods,  and  refused  to  change.  At  last,  however,  Clotilda 
had  her  wish. 

Clovis  was  fighting  against  the  Allemanni,  and  in  the  496 
Battle  of  Tolbiac  his  soldiers  were  being  beaten.  Fervently 
he  called  upon  his  heathen  gods  to  save  him,  and  turn  the 
fortune  of  the  day  in  his  favour.  His  prayers  were  in  vain, 
and  the  Franks  fled  before  the  foe.  Then,  in  the  agony  of 
defeat,  Clovis  prayed  to  Clotilda's  God. 


io  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

"  Jesus  Christ,"  he  cried,  "  whom  Clotilda  declares  to  be 
the  only  true  God,  aid  me.  If  Thou  wilt  grant  me  victory 
over  mine  enemies  I  will  believe  in  Thee,  and  will  be  baptized 
in  Thy  name.  I  have  called  upon  my  own  gods  and  they 
have  not  helped  me.  To  Thee  alone  I  pray." 

As  Clovis  so  prayed  the  tide  of  battle  turned,  and  when 
night  fell  the  victory  was  his,  and  the  enemy  fled  in  all 
directions.  Returning  home,  the  king  loyally  kept  his  word. 
The  water  of  baptism  was  sprinkled  upon  him,  his  forehead 
received  the  sign  of  the  Cross,  and  henceforth  he  was  a 
Christian.  Nor  was  Clovis  alone  in  his  baptism.  With  him 
three  hundred  of  his  followers  accepted  the  Christian  faith. 

This  sudden  and  wholesale  conversion  made  little  differ- 
ence in  the  lives  of  Clovis  and  his  tameless  warriors.  After, 
as  before,  they  were  blood-thirsty  barbarians.  But  much  of 
the  king's  future  success  was  due  to  his  conversion.  For  it 
brought  him  a  powerful  friend  in  the  Church  of  Rome, 
and  when  he  conquered  the  Arian  kings  of  the  Visigoths  and 
the  Burgundians,  the  great  prelates  looked  upon  him  as  a 
champion  of  the  Church,  and  regarded  his  wars  as  holy  wars. 
Thus  began  an  alliance  between  the  popes  and  the  kings  of 
France  which,  in  days  to  come,  had  great  influence  upon  the 
history  of  western  Europe. 

Even  the  emperor  in  far-off  Constantinople  honoured 
Clovis.  Instead  of  regarding  him  as  a  barbarian  enemy, 
assisting  at  the  destruction  of  the  Empire,  he  looked  upon 
him  as  an  ally,  and  gave  him  the  title  of  Roman  Consul.  It 
was  but  an  empty  title,  and  added  nothing  to  the  reality  of 
the  Frankish  king's  conquests,  but  it  pleased  his  barbaric 
mind. 

Clovis  reigned  for  thirty  years.     At  the  beginning  of  his 

reign  he  had  been  merely  the  chief  of  a  petty  tribe.     When 

511  he  died  he  was  ruler  of  a  vast    kingdom   stretching  from 

beyond  the  Rhine  to  the  Pyrenees.     "  For  each  day/'  says 

an  old  writer,  "  the  enemies  of  Clovis  fell  beneath  his  hand, 


THE  VANDALS  n 

and  his  kingdom  was  augmented,  because  with  a  pure  heart 
he  walked  before  the  Lord,  and  did  that  which  was  right  in 
His  eyes." 


CHAPTER  III 
THE  BARBARIANS  RULE  IN  ROME 

ROME  had  been  saved  from  the  Hun  (see  Chapter  I)  only  to 
fall  into  the  hands  of  another  barbarian  foe.  From  Andalusia 
the  Vandals  had  crossed  the  Straits  of  Gibraltar,  overrun  the 
northern  shores  of  Africa,  and,  under  their  savage  king, 
Gaiseric,  made  themselves  complete  masters  of  that  Roman 
province.  Up  and  down  the  Mediterranean  they  sailed  in 
their  pirate  ships,  plundering  the  rich  and  fruitful  islands, 
causing  peaceful  traders  to  tremble  and  flee  before  them. 
Their  sole  joy  was  in  plunder  and  bloodshed,  and  they  cared 
not  where  they  went  in  quest  of  it. 

The  Vandals  :    The  March  of  Gaiseric 

"  I  sail  to  the  cities  of  men  with  whom  God  is  angry,"  said 
Gaiseric.  And  from  his  actions  it  would  appear  that  he 
thought  God  was  angry  with  all  who  crossed  his  path.  So, 
having  robbed  and  wasted  many  a  fair  city  of  the  Mediter- 
ranean, Gaiseric  and  his  Vandals  one  day  appeared  before  453 
Rome.  The  emperor  and  the  people  fled,  and  the  walls  were 
left  defenceless.  But  as  the  Vandals  advanced  the  gates 
were  thrown  open.  It  was,  however,  no  armed  force  which 
issued  forth,  but  a  company  of  priests. 

Once  again  Leo  sought  to  save  the  imperial  city.  Un- 
armed save  by  his  dauntless  courage,  with  the  Cross  carried 
before  him,  and  his  clergy  following  after,  he  advanced  to 
meet  the  foe.  But  this  time  he  could  not  altogether  prevail. 


12  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  Vandals  were  bent  on  booty.  Booty  they  would  have. 
Leo  could  only  wring  from  their  chief  a  promise  that  there 
should  be  no  bloodshed,  no  burning  of  houses,  no  torture  of 
the  defenceless.  With  that  he  was  fain  to  be  content,  and 
the  sack  of  Rome  began. 

For  fourteen  days  the  pillage  lasted.  Then,  having 
stripped  the  city  of  its  treasures,  the  robbers  sailed  away  in 
their  richly  laden  galleys,  carrying  with  them  thousands  of 
Roman  citizens  as  slaves. 

The  Western  Empire  was  now  almost  entirely  in  the  hands 
of  the  Teutonic  tribes  which  had  overrun  its  borders.  But 
still,  for  twenty-one  years,  it  lingered  on  in  death.  Then  the 
end  came. 

475-6  The  last  emperor  of  Rome  bore  the  same  name  as  its 
founder — Romulus.  He  was,  however,  only  a  feeble, 
beautiful  boy  of  fourteen,  so  he  was  called  Romulus  Agustulus 
or  the  Little  Emperor.  He  was  deposed  by  Odoacer  the 
German,  who  was  the  first  barbarian  to  sit  upon  the  throne 
476-  of  the  Caesars.  Odoacer,  however,  did  not  take  to  himself 
493  the  title  of  emperor.  For  the  Roman  Empire  in  the 
east  still  existed,  a  Roman  emperor  still  reigned  in  Con- 
stantinople. To  this  emperor  then,  Odoacer  sent  the  purple 
robe  and  the  royal  diadem,  with  a  letter,  in  which  he 
declared  that  one  emperor  was  enough  both  for  East  and 
West,  and  demanding  the  right  to  rule  in  Italy  as  patrician 
or  king. 

Theodoric  and  the  Ostrogoths 

At  first,  when  the  emperor,  Zeno,  received  Odoacer 's 
letter  he  was  merely  angry  that  this  bold  barbarian  had  dared 
to  usurp  the  throne  of  the  Caesars.  Then  he  felt  rather 
pleased  at  the  idea  of  being  sole  emperor.  So  he  left  Odoacer 
alone,  and  for  thirteen  years  he  reaped  the  reward  of  his 
boldness,  and  ruled  Rome  in  peace.  Then  another  barbarian, 
Theodoric  the  Ostrogoth,  turned  his  eyes  on  Italy.  He 


ODOACER  THE  GERMAN  13 

desired  to  conquer  it,  and  the  emperor  did  nothing  to  re- 
strain him.  For  Theodoric  and  his  Goths  were  dangerous 
friends  and  troublesome  neighbours,  and  it  seemed  better  to 
the  emperor  that  they  should  harass  the  Western  Empire, 
over  which  he  had  but  a  shadowy  right,  than  that  they  should 
turn  their  swords  against  him. 

So  once  again  a  great  barbarian  force  marched  on  Italy.  489 
This  time  they  came  not  as  an  army  but  as  a  nation,  bringing 
their  wives,  and  children  and  household  goods  with  them. 
For  the  Goths  had  heard  much  of  the  beauty  and  the  riches 
of  Rome,  and  they  meant  to  abide  there.  Odoacer,  however, 
did  not  lightly  yield  what  his  sword  had  won,  and  for  more 
than  four  years  he  fought  for  his  kingdom.  At  length, 
however,  even  his  stubborn  will  gave  way,  and  at  Ravenna 
he  surrendered  to  Theodoric.  493 

Theodoric  promised  Odoacer  his  life,  promised  even  that 
he  should  rule  with  equal  power  with  himself.  But  he  did 
not  keep  his  promise,  for  he  well  knew  that  two  kings  could 
not  rule  in  Italy,  and  secretly  he  resolved  to  put  Odoacer  to 
death. 

Ten  days,  therefore,  after  Theodoric  had  entered  Ravenna 
in  triumph  he  invited  his  fallen  rival  to  a  feast.  As  Odoacer 
neared  the  banqueting  hall  two  men  suddenly  threw  them- 
selves at  his  feet,  praying  him  to  grant  them  a  boon.  In  the 
fervour  of  their  entreaties  they  seized  his  hands  and  held 
them  fast.  As  they  did  so  armed  men,  in  the  midst  of  whom 
was  Theodoric,  drawn  sword  in  hand,  surrounded  them. 
Too  well  Odoacer  knew  that  his  last  hour  had  come.  "  O 
God,"  he  cried,  "  where  art  Thou  ?  " 

He  spoke  no  more.  For  Theodoric's  sword  descended, 
cleaving  his  helpless  enemy  from  neck  to  thigh.  Even 
Theodoric  himself  was  amazed  at  the  blow.  "  Methinks  the 
catiff  had  never  a  bone  in  his  body  !  "  he  cried,  with  a 
savage  laugh,  as  he  turned  away. 

Thus  Theodoric  the  Goth  began  his  reign  in  Italy,  and  save 


14  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

this  one  black  deed  of  treachery  there  is  little  to  record  against 
him  in  his  reign  of  more  than  thirty  years.  He  was  a  bar- 
barian, but  with  the  conquest  of  Italy  he  stayed  his  sword, 
seeking  no  further  conquests,  but  only  the  good  of  the  con- 
quered people. 

He  had  no  easy  task,  for  he  had  two  utterly  different 
peoples  to  rule  over,  Romans  and  Goths.  He  was  just, 
however,  and  wise,  and  soon  he  was  loved  by  both  peoples. 
He  preserved  many  of  the  old  Roman  laws,  and  although 
he  was  so  ignorant  himself  that  he  could  only  with  difficulty 
trace  his  own  name,  he  encouraged  learning  in  others.  He 
made  friendly  alliances  with  all  the  peoples  around  him, 
and  so  that  these  should  be  lasting  and  binding  he  arranged 
marriages  between  his  own  family  and  those  of  the  neigh- 
bouring princes,  thus  taking  a  precaution  of  which  the  world 
has  not  yet  learned  the  uselessness  and  danger. 

Theodoric,  indeed,  seems  to  have  been  for  tjhese  early 
days  a  model  prince.  He  was,  we  are  told,  "  A  lover  of 
manufactures,  and  a  great  restorer  of  cities.  .  .  .  Merchants 
from  other  countries  flocked  to  his  dominions.  For  so  great 
was  the  order  which  he  made  there  that  if  any  one  left  gold 
or  silver  at  his  farm  it  was  as  safe  as  if  it  had  been  within  a 
walled  city.  This  is  proved  by  the  fact  that  he  never  made 
gates  for  any  city  in  Italy,  and  those  which  were  there 
already  were  never  closed." 

It  seemed  as  if  Theodoric  had  founded  a  new  dynasty  in 
Italy,  under  which  those  two  races,  from  which  the  modern 
civilization  of  Europe  was  to  spring,  would  be  united.  But 
that  was  not  to  be.  After  a  reign  of  nearly  thirty-three 
526  years  he  died,  leaving  his  kingdom  to  the  rule  of  a  woman 
and  a  child,  and  all  the  miseries  attendant. 


JUSTINIAN'S  CONQUESTS  15 


CHAPTER  IV 

THE   RISE  AND    FALL    OF   JUSTINIAN'S 
EMPIRE— THE  ROLE  OF  THE  EASTERN 

EMPIRE 

THE  year  after  Theodoric  died  Justinian,  one  of  the  greatest  527-65 
rulers  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  came  to  power.     He  was  not 
content  with  merely  ruling  over  the  Eastern  Empire,  but, 
like  the  Caesars  before  him,  he  had  dreams  of  a  world  dominion, 
and  he  longed  to  gather  under  his  sceptre  all  the  lands 
which  had  at  one  time  owned  Roman  sway.     He  had  great 
generals  at  his  command  to  help  him  to  realize  his  dream, 
among  them  Belisarius,  at  this  time  a  brave  and  splendid  505  ?-6! 
youth. 

Belisarius  and  Narses 

About  this  time  the  Vandals  were  quarrelling  among  them- 
selves, and  it  seemed  to  Justinian  a  good  opportunity  to  win 
Africa  again  for  the  Empire.  So  with  a  great  army  Beli- 
sarius set  out.  In  a  campaign  of  three  months  he  conquered 
the  Vandals.  Then,  laden  with  rich  spoil,  and  carrying 
the  captive  Vandal  king,  Gelimer,  with  him,  he  returned  533 
again  to  Constantinople  in  triumph. 

Italy,  too,  was  at  this  time  in  a  state  of  unrest.  Here 
again  Justinian  saw  his  opportunity,  and  again  Belisarius  536 
set  forth  to  subdue  a  rebel  province  of  the  Empire.  But  to 
conquer  the  Goths  was  by  no  means  an  easy  matter.  The 
war  raged  for  years,  and  before  he  could  bring  it  to  a 
victorious  close  the  jealousy  of  his  rivals  caused  Belisarius  to 
be  recalled. 

Two  years  later  he  returned  to  Italy.     But  he  was,  he  says 


16  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

himself,  "destitute  of  all  the  necessary  implements  of  war 

—men,  horses,  arms,  and  money."     And  the  emperor,  still 

listening  to  the  envious  whisperers,  was  deaf  to  his  appeals. 

So  the  war  lingered  on,  until  at  length  Belisarius  was  again 

487-573  recalled,  and  his  place  taken  by  Narses,  another  of  Justinian's 

great  generals. 

Narses  was  no  young  and  splendid  hero  like  Belisarius,  but 
a  little  dried-up  old  man.  He  was,  however,  the  most 
brilliant  strategist  of  the  day,  and  he  received  the  support 
denied  to  Belisarius.  His  so-called  Roman  army  was  indeed 
merely  a  conglomeration  of  Greeks  and  wild  barbarians,  but 
with  it  he  swept  victoriously  through  Italy. 

It  was  not  far  from  the  ancient  city  of  Pompeii  that  the 
Goths  made  their  last  stand.  Their  king,  Teias,  stood  in  the 
forefront  of  the  battle.  In  his  right  hand  he  held  a  mighty 
spear,  and  with  unerring  aim  he  dealt  death  this  way  and 
that.  Although  arrows  and  javelins  fell  thick  and  fast  about 
him,  he  heeded  them  not.  Yet  so  many  found  their  mark, 
and  remained  fast  embedded  in  his  shield  that,  at  length, 
even  his  mighty  arm  could  not  bear  the  weight. 

So  calling  to  his  squire  he  bade  him  bring  another  shield. 
The  squire  obeyed.  But  for  one  moment,  in  changing  one 
shield  for  another,  the  king's  side  was  unprotected.  In 
that  moment  a  javelin  was  sped,  and,  pierced  to  the  heart, 
553  Teias  fell  dying  to  the  ground.  With  a  wild  shout  of  exulta- 
tion the  foe  rushed  forward,  and  cutting  off  his  head,  placed 
it  upon  a  spear,  and  carried  it  in  triumph  through  their 
ranks. 

Thus  died  the  last  king  of  the  Goths.  Yet  although 
leaderless  now,  his  men  still  fought  on,  and  only  night  and 
darkness  put  an  end  to  the  strife.  Day  dawned  and  it  was 
renewed,  but  the  struggle  now  was  hopeless,  and  at  length 
the  Goths  sued  for  peace.  This  Narses  readily  granted, 
giving  the  conquered  people  the  choice  between  remaining 
in  Italy  as  the  subjects  of  Justinian  or  of  departing  thence. 


JUSTINIAN  AS  LAWGIVER  17 

The  Goths  chose  to  depart.  And  with  their  women  and 
children  and  household  goods  they  slowly  crossed  the  Alps. 
They  went  who  knows  where  ?  From  that  time  the  Ostro- 
goths vanish  from  history. 

But  the  campaign  in  Italy  was  not  yet  over.  For  the 
Franks  and  Allemanni  had  poured  like  a  torrent  over  the 
Alps  into  the  plain  of  Italy,  vowing  to  restore  the  Gothic 
kingdom.  But  these,  too,  Narses  defeated,  and  only  a 
scattered  remnant  reached  home.  Then  at  length  the 
harassed,  exhausted  land  had  rest,  and  for  the  next  twelve 
years  Narses  ruled  over  it  as  governor  for  the  emperor. 

Justinian  also  attacked  the  Visigoths  in  Spain,  and  brought 
all  the  south  and  east  of  that  country  under  Roman  rule  once 
more.  So  much  of  the  old  Roman  Empire,  indeed,  did  he 
reconquer  that  it  seemed  as  if  his  dream  might  come  true. 
But  in  565  he  died,  and  almost  at  once  fresh  hordes  of 
barbarians  overran  his  newly  acquired  provinces.  The 
Lombards  invaded  Italy,  the  Visigoths  rose  and  expelled 
the  Romans  from  Spain,  Slavs  and  Avars,  wild  peoples  akin 
to  the  Huns,  streamed  over  the  Balkans,  while  Persians,  in  a 
war  which  lasted  twenty  years,  devasted  the  eastern  boun- 
daries of  the  Empire.  Arabs  made  themselves  masters  of 
Egypt  and  Roman  Africa,  until  at  length  the  Eastern  Empire 
included  little  more  than  the  countries  now  forming  Greece, 
the  Balkan  States,  and  Asia  Minor. 

It  is  not,  therefore,  for  his  conquests  that  we  remember 
Justinian.  For  his  conquests  soon  vanished  away,  and  all 
through  the  ages  he  has  been  remembered  not  as  a  conqueror 
but  as  a  lawgiver.  His  great  work  was  the  codification  of 
the  whole  body  of  Roman  law.  Upon  the  so-called  laws  of 
Justinian  the  laws  of  nearly  every  civilized  country  are 
founded  to  this  day.  That  is  his  title  to  greatness. 

It  must  be  remembered,  too,  that  although  after  the  time 
of  Justinian  the  dimensions  of  the  Empire  became  small 
indeed,  in  comparison  to  those  of  the  Roman  Empire  in  the 

B 


i8  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

days  of  its  strength,  it  was  no  mean  role  that  this  shrunken 
Empire  played  in  the  development  of  Europe ;  for  it 
formed  a  Christian  bulwark  against  the  attacks  of  the  heathen 
hordes  of  Asia.  While  the  new  Teutonic  kingdoms  were 
being  formed  it  was  the  Romans  and  not  the  Teutons  who 
defended  Europe  from  the  danger  coming  from  the  east. 

And  besides  being  a  barrier  the  Eastern  Empire  was  a 
storehouse  of  art  and  literature.  For  the  new  Teutonic 
nations  which  overran  the  Western  Empire  were  only  half 
civilized,  or  not  civilized  at  all.  Before  them  the  learning 
and  the  art  of  old  Rome  went  down.  It  would  have  been 
lost  to  the  world  had  it  not  been  kept  alive  in  Constantinople. 
There,  too,  in  this  time  of  flux  the  trade  and  commerce  of 
Europe  centred,  and  when  in  course  of  time  the  new  Teutonic 
kingdoms  settled  down,  and  the  peoples  awakened  to  the 
need  of  learning  and  of  art,  it  was  to  Constantinople  that 
they  turned  to  find  them. 

But  however  useful  a  part  the  Empire  played  in  the  de- 
velopment of  Europe  the  old  imperial  splendour  was  gone. 
New  Rome  was  not  mistress  of  the  world,  but  rather  its 
handmaid.  And  as  the  old  imperial  idea  changed  the 
character  of  the  Empire  changed  too.  It  was  no  longer 
Roman  in  any  sense,  but  Greek.  Greek  became  the  language 
of  State,  and  even  the  later  laws  of  Justinian  were  written 
in  that  language.  So  although  legally  the  continuance  of 
the  Roman  Empire,  it  has  come  to  be  called  the  Greek 
Empire  or  the  Byzantine  Empire,  from  the  name  of  the 
ancient  city  of  Byzantium,  upon  the  site  of  which  Con- 
stantinople was  built. 


THE  LOMBARDS  19 


CHAPTER  V 

GREGORY  THE   GREAT  LAYS  THE 
FOUNDATION  OF  PAPAL  POWER 

The  Lombards  in  Italy 

THE  Lombards  or  Longbeards,  so  called  either  because  of 
their  long  axes  or  long  beards,  invaded  Italy  less  than  three 
years  after  the  death  of  Justinian.  They  were  a  terrible 
people,  "  a  race  fierce  with  more  than  the  ordinary  fierceness 
of  the  Germans."  They  fought  for  the  mere  love  of  blood- 
shed and  destruction.  They  had  not  even  the  beginnings  of 
art  and  learning  when  they  swarmed  over  Italy,  and  they 
brought  nothing  with  them  save  savagery  and  a  cruel  love 
of  slaughter. 

The  name  of  their  king  at  this  time  was  Albion,  and  with  568 
his  brutish  host  he  quickly  overran  all  the  north  of  the 
peninsula,  made  Pavia  his  capital,  and  called  himself  Lord 
of  Italy.  In  no  long  time,  however,  Albion  was  murdered 
by  his  own  people.  His  successor  also  was  murdered. 
Then  for  ten  years  there  followed  a  "  kingless  time,"  during 
which  thirty-six  barbarian  dukes  oppressed  the  unhappy 
land. 

Soon  the  whole  peninsula  was  theirs  save  Ravenna,  Rome, 
Naples,  Venice,  and  a  few  other  coast  towns  with  the  terri- 
tory round  them.  All  Italy  was  still  in  name  part  of  the 
Eastern  Empire,  and  an  exarch  ruled  in  Ravenna  in  the 
name  of  the  emperor.  But  he  could  give  little  help  to  the 
rest  of  Italy  against  the  Lombards,  for  he  had  scarce  troops 
enough  to  defend  Ravenna  itself. 

Now  again  and  again  in  their  misery  the  Romans  sent  Justin  II 
messengers  to  Constantinople,  praying  the  emperors  who         . 
succeeded  Justinian  to  grant  them  aid.     But  they  prayed  573 


20  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Maurice  in  vain.     The  emperors  were  busy  with  their  wars  against 

582  the  Persians  and  the  Avars,  enemies  at  their  gates.     To 

them  Constantinople  was  the  heart  of  the  Empire,  Italy 

but  an  outlying  province,  for  which  it  was  not  well  to  sacrifice 

safety  at  home. 

Such  was  the  state  of  Italy  when,  in  590,  much  against 
540  604  his  will,  Gregory  I  became  pope.     !<  For  my  sins,"  he  writes, 
"  I  find  myself  bishop,  not  of  the  Romans  but  of  the  Lom- 
bards, men  whose  promises  stab  like  swords,  and  whose 
kindness  is  bitter  punishment." 

In  his  youth  Gregory  had  been  a  brilliant  man  of  the  world, 
573  and  had  been  made  prefect  of  the  city,  an  office  which 
entitled  him  to  wear  the  imperial  purple.  We  may  picture 
him,  young  and  handsome,  dashing  through  the  streets  of 
Rome  in  a  gilded  chariot,  while  the  populace  bow  before  him, 
or  clad  in  robes  of  purple  presiding  at  the  Senate,  or  in  the 
courts  of  justice.  But  amidst  this  splendour  Gregory  felt 
the  call  of  religion.  Suddenly  he  broke  off  his  brilliant 
career,  devoted  all  his  fortune  to  the  founding  of  convents  and 
monasteries,  and  himself  became  a  monk. 

But  Gregory  had  a  true  genius  for  business,  and  his  great 
abilities  could  not  be  altogether  hid  beneath  the  humble 
garb  of  a  monk.  He  soon  became  an  abbot,  and  at  length 
590  the  supreme  office  of  pope  was  thrust  upon  him.  As  pope 
he  showed  himself  to  be  a  great  pastor  and  great  statesman. 
His  love  for,  and  pride  in,  Rome  was  unbounded.  To  him 
there  was  no  question  but  that  Rome  was  the  city  of  the 
world,  and  that  the  bishop  of  Rome  was  by  divine  right  the 
head  of  the  Church.  And  by  insisting  on  that  right  he  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  absolute  spiritual  power  which  future 
popes  were  to  enjoy. 

The  Temporal  Power  of  the  Papacy 

He  also  laid  the  foundations  of  their  temporal  power.     This 
was  not  so  much  sought  by  him  as  forced  upon  him  by  cir- 


GREGORY  THE  GREAT  21 

cumstances.  His  appeals  for  help  against  the  Lombards 
were  disregarded  both  by  the  exarch  of  Ravenna  and  by  the 
emperor.  He  saw  then  that  he  must  either  take  to  himself 
regal  power  or  suffer  the  oppression  of  the  Lombards.  He 
chose  the  former,  and  boldly  took  the  reins  of  government 
into  his  own  hands.  He  carried  on  the  war  against  the 
Lombards,  he  gave  orders  to  generals,  he  appointed 
governors,  and  did  not  hesitate  to  declare  that  his  rank  was 
higher  than  that  of  the  exarch,  even  although  the  latter  was 
the  representative  of  the  emperor.  Finally  he  made  peace 
on  his  own  account  with  one  of  the  Lombard  chiefs.  592 

This  roused  the  Emperor  Maurice  to  wrath,  and  he  called 
Gregory  in  so  many  words  a  disloyal,  presumptuous  fool. 
He  could,  or  would,  do  nothing  himself  to  relieve  his  dis- 
tressed province,  but  neither  would  he  recognize  the  act  of 
another  which  seemed  to  usurp  his  imperial  authority,  and 
he  refused  to  ratify  the  peace.  Only  after  years  had  passed 
could  he  be  brought  to  own  that  the  Lombards  had  come  to 
stay,  and  see  the  impossibility  of  ousting  them  without 
strong  measures.  For  strong  measures  he  was  not  prepared, 
and  at  length  a  general  peace  was  signed.  599 

Peace  brought  added  work  to  Gregory  both  in  Church  and 
State.  For  now  that  his  messengers  could  travel  safely 
through  Italy  he  made  rebellious  or  lax  clergy  feel  his 
authority,  rousing  them  to  zeal  or  bringing  them  back  to 
obedience.  He  settled  disputes  over  boundaries,  and  arbi- 
trated in  many  ways  between  Lombards  and  Romans. 
Now,  too,  he  carried  out  his  long  cherished  plan  and  sent  St. 
Augustine  to  convert  the  heathen  Angles  of  England.  597 

Gregory's  days  and  nights  were  full,  his  manifold  labours 
leaving  him  scant  rest.  Yet  all  this  work  in  Church  and 
state,  at  home  and  abroad,  was  carried  on  by  a  man  in 
constant  pain,  so  ill  indeed  that  for  weeks  at  a  time  he  could 
not  leave  his  bed.  "  I  live  in  such  misery  and  pain,"  he 
writes,  "  that  I  grieve  to  see  the  light  of  returning  day.  My 


22  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

only  comfort  is  in  the  hope  of  death."     Or  again,  "  I  die 
daily,  yet  never  die." 

Before  many  years  had  passed  his  labours  for  peace  seemed 
to  be  brought  to  naught  by  the  folly  of  the  exarch.  War 
broke  out  again  and  ended  in  further  triumphs  for  the  Lom- 
bards. Yet  from  this  time  dates  a  more  settled  state  in  the 
affairs  of  Italy.  The  peace  was  often  disturbed,  often 
broken,  but  on  the  whole  it  was  maintained,  or  renewed,  from 
year  to  year.  Still,  for  nearly  two  hundred  years  this  obscure 
and  savage  Teuton  race  held  sway  over  the  fair  lands  of 
Italy  which  to-day  still  bear  the  name  of  Lombardy. 

Meanwhile  the  great  prelate  drew  near  his  end.  A  moment 
of  peace  had  come  to  his  beloved  land  when  peace  came  to 
604  him  too,  and  death  set  him  free  from  his  labours  and  his 
pains.  He  was  not  as  men  count  years  an  aged  man,  but 
he  was  worn  out  by  his  great  labours  and  great  suffering.  He 
left  his  mark  not  only  on  his  own  times  but  on  times  to  come. 
For  he  had  advanced  the  Roman  see  to  a  far  higher  position 
than  it  had  ever  before  attained,  and  for  good  or  ill  had  laid 
the  foundations  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  popes. 


CHAPTER  VI 
THE  RISE  OF  MOHAMMEDANISM 

ABOUT  four  or  five  years  after  the  death  of  Justinian  the 
569  Great  a  little  boy  was  born  in  Mecca,  and  was  given  the 
name  of  Mohammed,  or  the  Praised.  This  Arab  belonged 
to  a  princely  tribe  who  traced  their  descent  to  Ishmael. 
They  had  in  their  keeping  the  Kaabah  or  sacred  temple  of 
the  Arabs.  Kaabah  means  a  cube,  and  the  name  was  given 
to  the  temple  because  of  its  shape,  which  was  square.  It  had 


MOHAMMED  23 

only  one  window  and  one  door,  and  until  the  time  of  Mo- 
hammed it  was  roofed  only  by  a  great  black  carpet  which 
hung  down  on  all  sides. 

This  temple  was  said  to  have  been  first  built  by  Adam  from 
a  plan  sent  down  from  heaven.  But  it  had  been  restored 
several  times,  by  Seth,  by  Abraham,  and  last  by  Ishmael. 
Since  that  time  the  tribe  to  which  Mohammed  belonged  had 
had  it  in  their  keeping.  It  enshrined  a  great  treasure,  for 
in  the  north-west  corner  of  the  wall  there  was  set  a  black 
stone  which  was  said  to  have  been  brought  from  paradise. 
Then  it  was  white,  but  it  had  since  turned  black  through 
the  many  kisses  bestowed  upon  it  by  sinful  although  devout 
lips. 

In  spite  of  this  legend,  which  seems  to  connect  them  with 
the  Jews,  the  Arabs  were  idolaters,  and  within  the  Kaabah 
there  were  gathered  three  hundred  and  sixty  idols  in  the 
shapes  of  men  and  beasts.  Every  year  vast  numbers  of 
pilgrims  came  from  all  parts  of  Arabia  to  do  homage  to 
them  and,  above  all,  to  the  sacred  black  stone.  The  posses- 
sion of  this  stone  made  the  Kaabah  the  most  venerated 
temple  in  all  Arabia,  indeed,  because  of  it  the  whole  district 
round  Mecca  was  considered  holy,  and  it  was  forbidden  to 
kill  anything  there  save  animals  for  sacrifice. 

It  was  therefore  in  a  city  already  held  sacred  that  Mo- 
hammed was  born.  He  caused  it  to  be  held  still  more 
sacred,  and  made  the  name  of  Mecca  famous  throughout  the 
whole  world. 

Mohammed's  father  died  before  he  was  born,  and  his 
mother  and  grandfather  not  many  years  later.  He  had 
many  uncles,  and  as  they  claimed  much  of  his  father's 
fortune  there  was  little  left  for  Mohammed.  So  he  began 
life  with  no  more  wealth  than  five  camels  and  a  slave  girl. 
But  he  was  fortunate  and  prospered  well.  He  was  a  splendid- 
looking  man,  broad  of  shoulder,  lithe  of  limb,  with  great 
black  eyes  shining  in  his  clear  brown  face.  He  seemed  born 


24  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

to  lead  and  bend  others  to  his  will.     Yet  he  was  forty  years 
old  before  he  began  the  career  which  made  him  famous. 

At  this  time  many  people  in  Arabia  were  dissatisfied  with 
the  worship  of  idols,  and  were  seeking  after  a  better  religion. 
Some  of  Mohammed's  friends  were  among  these.  He  used 
to  talk  much  with  them,  and  also  with  the  many  Jews  and 
Christians  who  had  settled  in  the  land,  and  from  them  he 
learned  something  both  of  the  Jewish  and  of  the  Christian 
faiths. 

Mohammed  pondered  over  these  things,  and  at  length 
he  announced  that  he  had  seen  a  vision,  and  received  a 
revelation  from  heaven.  One  day,  he  said,  when  he  was  in  a 
lonely  spot  an  angel  appeared  to  him  with  a  written  scroll 
in  his  hand,  and  said  to  him,  "  Read." 

Now  Mohammed  could  neither  read  nor  write,  and  in 
great  fear  he  replied,  "  I  cannot  read."  Thereupon  the 
angel  shook  him  wrathfully,  and  again  commanded  him  to 
read.  Again  Mohammed,  in  great  fear  and  trembling, 
replied,  "  I  cannot  read." 

Three  times  this  was  repeated.  Then  the  angel  himself 
took  the  scroll  and  read  it  to  Mohammed,  and  the  words 
which  he  heard  were  so  graven  upon  his  heart  that  he  re- 
membered them  ever  after,  and  later,  when  his  holy  book 
was  made,  they  became  part  of  it. 

611  Other  visions  and  revelations  followed  this  first  one,  and 
at  length  Mohammed  announced  his  message  to  the  world. 
It  was  very  simple.  It  was  merely,  "  There  is  but  one  God 
and  Mohammed  is  his  prophet." 

Thus  a  new  religion  was  founded  which  was,  in  time,  to 
enslave  half  the  world.  But  at  first  few  listened  to  Moham- 
med. Indeed,  for  some  years  he  made  scarcely  any  con- 
verts save  the  women  of  his  own  household.  But  by  degrees, 
slowly  at  first,  and  then  more  rapidly,  his  followers  increased. 

And  as  Mohammed's  followers  increased,  visions  and  re- 
velations increased  also.  For  when  anything  required  to 


MOHAMMED  BEGINS  HIS  HOLY  WAR          25 

be  added  to  the  creed,  or  when  any  action  of  the  Prophet 
seemed  to  need  supernatural  support,  Mohammed  had  a 
revelation.  What  he  learned  in  these  Mohammed  dictated 
to  his  scribes,  who  wrote  it  down  on  palm  leaves,  blade  bones 
of  animals,  bits  of  parchment,  or  anything  which  came  to 
hand.  It  was  not  until  after  the  Prophet's  death,  however, 
that  they  were  all  gathered  together  into  the  Koran,  or  Book 
of  God  of  the  Mohammedans. 

The  Hegira 

In  time  Mohammed  had  adherents  all  over  Arabia.  Only 
the  men  of  his  own  tribe  were  filled  with  wrath  against  him. 
For,  said  they,  if  this  pestilent  fellow  preached  that  there 
was  only  one  God  what  was  to  become  of  the  Kaabah  and 
its  many  idols.  If  the  idols  fell  into  disrepute  the  keepers  of 
the  temple  would  be  ruined.  The  thousands  of  pilgrims 
who  flocked  every  year  to  the  Kaabah  would  come  no  more. 
All  the  trade  which  came  in  their  train,  which  made  not  only 
the  keepers  of  the  temple  but  Mecca  rich  and  powerful, 
would  be  lost.  They  decided,  therefore,  that  his  mouth 
must  be  stopped,  and  a  persecution  began  which  ended  in  622 
Mohammed  fleeing  with  his  followers  to  Medina.  This  is 
called  the  Hegira,  or  Flight,  and  from  it  the  beginning  of  the 
Mohammedan  era  dates. 

It  was  soon  after  the  Hegira  that  Mohammed  began  to 
preach  his  holy  war.  He  had  taken  a  great  deal  of  his  new 
religion  from  Judaism  and  from  Christianity.  But  unlike 
these  religions,  which  either  did  not  try  to  make  converts, 
or  tried  to  make  them  peacefully,  Mohammed  now  deter- 
mined to  convert  the  world  with  the  sword  if  need  be. 

So  Mohammed  unsheathed  his  sword,  and  in  less  than  eight  629 
years'  time  he  who  had  fled  from  Mecca  in  secrecy  and  dark- 
ness returned  in  triumph.      He  entered  the  Kaabah,  and 
ordered  it  to  be  cleared  of  idols.    And  as  one  by  one  they  fell 
beneath  the  blows  of  his  followers,  he  cried  in  exultation, 


26  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

'  Truth  hath  come.  Falsehood  hath  gone  ;  for  falsehood 
vanisheth  away." 

But  although  cleared  of  idols  the  Kaabah  still  remained  the 
holy  of  holies  to  the  followers  of  Mohammed,  and  Mecca  is 
still  the  holy  city  towards  which  every  Mohammedan  turns 
when  he  prays.  For  Mohammed  quickly  saw  that  unless 
he  preserved  the  sacred  character  of  Mecca  he  could  never 
win  his  fellow-countrymen  to  his  creed.  During  countless 
ages  they  had  worshipped  at  Mecca,  and  reverence  for  it 
was  bred  in  them.  So  Mohammed  kept  Mecca  as  his  holy 
city.  And  when  the  Arabs  found  that  they  might  confess 
the  new  creed,  and  still  worship  in  the  Kaabah,  thousands 
became  easy  converts. 

Thus  he  who  had  begun  life  with  no  fortune  save  five 
camels  and  a  slave  girl  made  himself  master  of  an  empire. 
Mohammed  found  Arabia  a  mass  of  hostile  tribes,  each  with 
its  own  laws,  and  perpetually  at  war  with  every  other 
tribe  round.  He  found  it  given  over  to  idolatry.  In 
twenty  years  he  united  the  warring  tribes  and  made  them 
monotheistic.  In  twenty  years  he  created  a  nation  with  a 
national  religion  and  national  laws. 

But  Mohammed's  ambition  was  not  bounded  by  Arabia. 
He  determined  to  force  his  religion  on  people  beyond  its 
borders  and,  even  before  Mecca  had  submitted  to  him,  he 
had  caused  letters  to  be  written  to  the  greatest  potentates 
of  the  world,  to  the  Byzantine  emperor,  to  the  king  of 
Persia,  and  to  the  rulers  of  many  lesser  states.  These  letters 
he  sealed  with  a  great  seal,  engraven  with  the  words",  "  Mo- 
hammed, the  Apostle  of  God."  In  haughty  words  he  bade 
these  proud  potentates  put  away  their  old  idolatrous  re- 
ligions, and  do  homage  to  the  one  true  God. 

But  as  yet  the  name  of  Mohammed  was  hardly  known 
beyond  the  borders  of  Arabia,  and  his  haughty  missives 
awoke  no  thrill  of  fear  in  the  breasts  of  the  august  princes 
to  whom  they  were  addressed.  Some  of  the  lesser  rulers 


MOHAMMEDAN  CONQUESTS  27 

answered  courteously  enough,  but  the  greatest  among  them, 
the  Emperor  Heraclius,  flung  the  letter  contemptuously  by, 
while  Chosroes,  the  king  of  Persia,  tore  his  to  atoms  in 
fury,  and  commanded  that  the  insolent  Arab  be  brought 
to  him  in  chains.  When  Mohammed  heard  what  reception 
his  letter  had  received  he,  too,  was  wrathful.  He  cursed  the 
arrogant  king.  "  Even  as  he  has  rent  Thy  message,  O 
Lord,"  he  cried,  "  wilt  Thou  rend  his  kingdom  from  him." 

Indeed,  the  time  was  not  far  distant  when  both  king  and 
emperor  were  to  tremble  at  the  name  of  the  upstart  Arab. 
But  Mohammed  himself  did  not  live  to  see  that  time,  for 
two  years  after  his  triumphant  return  to  Mecca  he  died.  It  632 
seemed  for  a  time  as  if  his  work  had  died  with  him.  But 
it  was  not  so,  for  he  had  breathed  the  spirit  of  his  enthusiasm 
into  others,  and  he  was  succeeded  by  his  faithful  friend  and 
father-in-law  Abu  Bekr.  He  was  the  first  caliph,  caliph 
meaning  merely  successor. 


CHAPTER  VII 

THE  CONQUEST   OF  SPAIN   BY  THE 
ARABS 

The  Conquests  of  Abu  Bekr 

ABU  BEKR  was  filled  with  as  great  a  zeal  for  the  faith  as  had 
been  Mohammed,  and  with  an  even  greater  lust  for  gold  and 
power.  So  the  triumphant  march  of  the  Moslems,  or  Saracens 
as  they  came  to  be  called,  through  the  world  began.  With 
sword  in  one  hand  and  Book  of  God  in  the  other  they  set  out 
to  conquer  and  convert  the  whole  world.  To  all  prisoners 
of  war  they  offered  but  one  choice — death  or  the  Koran. 
Thus  a  new  terror  was  born  into  the  world,  a  new  danger 


28  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

made  all  Europe  tremble,  and  for  many  ages  the  cry  of  Allah, 
Allah  !  was  to  blanche  the  cheek  and  wake  fear  in  the  hearts 
of  all  who  heard  it. 

The  Moslem  soldiers  were  as  fearless  as  they  were  feared. 
Death  to  them  had  no  terrors.  It  was  but  the  gateway  into 
a  new  and  glorious  life ;  for  they  believed  that  if  they 
died  fighting  for  their  faith  they  would  at  once  enter  into  a 
paradise  of  endless  delights.  If  they  hesitated,  only  the  pains 
of  hell  awaited  them. 

So  with  fanatic  zeal  and  lust  of  blood  and  of  gold  burning 
in  them,  the  dark-faced  horde  swept  onward.  All  Persia  fell 
before  them,  from  the  Caspian  Sea  to  the  Indus.  Syria 
the  Holy  Land,  Armenia,  were  torn  from  the  Empire. 
Egypt,  too,  bowed  to  the  yoke.  Yet  Constantinople  stood 
firm,  and  again  and  yet  again  the  ravening  host  was  rolled 
back  from  its  walls  discomfited. 

But  through  the  Golden  Gate  of  Constantinople  was  not 
the  only  way  of  reaching  Europe.  The  Mediterranean  lay 
open  to  the  Moslem  ships,  and  soon  the  trade  routes  of  the 
world  were  in  their  hands.  Throughout  the  length  and 
breadth  of  the  inland  sea  they  sailed  at  will. '  They  overran 
the  north  of  Africa,  and  the  kingdom  of  the  Vandals,  which 
Justinian  had  reconquered  for  the  Eastern  Empire,  became 
709  another  jewel  in  the  caliph's  crown.*  Through  Africa  the 
conquering  Arab  marched  until  he  reached  the  shores  of 
the  Atlantic.  There,  like  some  new  Alexander,  he  stood, 
sighing  for  more  worlds  to  conquer.  Westward  lay  the 
barren  Outer  Sea,  the  great  double  continent  which  lay 
across  its  wide  waters  still  unknown  and  unguessed  at. 
Southward  lay  the  trackless  desert.  Northward  then  to 
Europe  the  conqueror's  eyes  were  turned. 

Across  the  narrrow  Straits  lay  Spain.  Since  the  days  when 
Ataulphus  the  son  of  the  Wolf  had  led  his  followers  there 
(see  Chapter  I)  the  power  of  the  Visigoths  had  spread  until 

*  See  map,  p.  47. 


RODERICK  AND  TARICK  29 

at  length  they  held  sway  over  the  whole  of  what  is  now 
Spain,  and  over  a  great  part  of  southern  Gaul  as  well.  For 
nearly  three  centuries  foreign  foes  had  scarcely  touched 
their  borders.  Yet  the  Goths  did  not  prosper.  For  they 
were  a  turbulent  people,  and  the  kingdom  was  nearly  always 
in  a  state  of  unrest.  Many  of  their  kings  died  by  murder, 
many  were  deposed,  revolutions  were  frequent  and  bloody. 

Roderick  and  Tarick 

Now,  instead  of  uniting  against  the  Moslem  danger,  they 
still  quarrelled  among  themselves.  A  noble  named  Roderick 
had  usurped  the  throne.  But  there  were  many  who  hated 
him,  among  them  the  sons  of  the  late  king,  and  a  certain 
Julian,  to  whom  he  had  done  a  deadly  wrong.  The  Jews, 
too,  of  whom  there  were  many  in  the  land,  were  ready  to 
revolt,  for  they  were  cruelly  persecuted. 

The  Arab  love  of  plunder  was  well  known,  and  it  seemed 
to  all  these  malcontents  that  it  would  be  well  to  have  their 
help  to  depose  the  hated  king,  Roderick.  The  Arabs  would 
come,  thought  the  Visigoths,  defeat  and  depose  their  king, 
and,  having  plundered  him  to  their  heart's  content,  would 
depart  again  to  their  own  land. 

So  Count  Julian  went  to  the  Arab  leader  and  offered  to 
help  him  if  he  would  but  come  and  free  the  country  from  the 
yoke  of  the  usurper.  The  Moslems  were  willing  enough,  and 
a  young  and  skilful  officer  named  Tarick  was  sent  to  depose 
King  Roderick.  He  landed  at  the  rocky  south-western 
corner  of  Europe  which,  after  him,  was  called  Jebal-Tarick, 
or  the  rock  of  Tarick.  It  is  still  called  by  that  name, 
Gibraltar,  although  the  last  syllable  has  fallen  away. 

Upon  landing,  Tarick  fortified  his  camp,  and  thus  more  711 
than  twelve  hundred  years  ago  began  the  military  history  of 
one   of   the   most   famous   fortresses   of  the   world.     King 
Roderick  hastened  to  meet  Tarick,  and  not  far  from  the 
town  of  Xeres  a  great  fight  took  place      But  when  the  armies 


30  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

drew  near  to  each  other,  we  are  told,  "  the  Gothic  princes 
began  to  spin  the  web  of  treason."  They,  with  their  followers, 
deserted  and  joined  the  Saracen  ranks,  and  soon  the  rest  of 
the  Gothic  army  broke  and  fled  in  disorder. 

King  Roderick  had  entered  the  battle  as  if  he  were  going 
to  a  play,  so  disdainful  was  he  of  the  heathen  invader.  Clad 
in  flowing  silken  robes,  with  a  jewelled  diadem  about  his 
brow,  he  reclined  in  an  ivory  car,  drawn  by  milk-white  mules. 
But  when  he  saw  the  day  lost  and  his  soldiers  fleeing  in 
rout,  he  sprang  from  the  car,  and  leaping  upon  his  fleetest 
horse,  joined  the  rout.  He  fled  from  battle,  however,  only 
to  meet  death  in  another  fashion.  For  in  trying  to  cross  a 
river,  which  flowed  near  the  battlefield,  he  was  drowned. 

The  Saracen  victory  was  complete.  But  instead  of  being 
content  with  their  triumph  and  plunder,  as  Count  Julian 
and  his  fellow-conspirators  had  imagined,  the  victorious 
troops  marched  further  and  further  into  Spain.  Everywhere 
towns  opened  their  gates  to  them.  Hardly  anywhere  did 
they  meet  with  the  slightest  resistance,  and  in  a  few  months 
the  Visigothic  kingdom  was  wiped  from  the  map  of  Europe. 
It  vanished  even  as  the  Ostrogothic  kingdom  had  vanished, 
and  the  whole  of  Spain,  save  a  little  strip  in  the  north-west, 
became  a  province  of  the  great  Mohammedan  Empire.* 

But  the  conquerors  were  not  content  with  Spain  only. 
They  swept  on  over  the  Pyrenees,  and  before  long  all  the 
south  of  Gaul  was  in  their  hands.  Nothing,  it  seemed, 
could  stay  their  conquering  march.  In  less  than  a  century 
and  a  half  the  Arabs  had  built  up  almost  the  greatest  empire 
the  world  has  ever  seen.  Now  it  appeared  as  if  all  Europe 
might  bow  the  knee  to  Allah,  and  pay  tribute  to  the  caliph. 

Arab  Rule  in  Spain 

Yet  it  is  well  to  remember  that  where  the  conquering 
Arab  passed  he  did  not  destroy  as  the  Hun  a,nd  the  Goth 

*  See  map,  p.  47. 


TEUTONS  AND  ARABS  31 

destroyed.  Beneath  the  onslaught  of  the  Christian,  but 
more  than  half  barbaric  Teutons,  the  art  and  learning  of 
Rome  to  a  great  extent  disappeared,  and  Italy  especially 
was  left  forlorn  and  desolate. 

It  was  not  so  much  that  the  Teutons  deliberately  set 
themselves  to  destroy  the  splendid  monuments  of  Roman 
art  and  learning,  as  we  are  taught  to  imagine  by  the  modern 
use  of  Goth  and  Vandal.  Indeed,  many  of  the  chief  Teutonic 
leaders  had  been  trained  in  the  school  of  Rome,  and  desired  to 
preserve  all  that  was  best  of  Roman  tradition.  But  even 
so,  the  genius  of  the  two  peoples  was  so  diverse  that  much 
that  was  Roman  was  bound  to  disappear.  Besides,  although 
some  of  the  leaders  were  more  or  less  civilized,  their  followers 
were  still  brutishly  ignorant. 

War  was  the  only  art  known  to  the  mass  of  the  Teutons 
when  they  invaded  the  Empire.  For  a  long  time  after  their 
invasion  war  was  the  rule  rather  than  the  exception,  and 
people  who  live  in  a  constant  state  of  war  cannot  well 
cultivate  the  arts  of  peace. 

With  the  Arabs  it  was  different.  At  the  time  of  their 
irruption  into  Europe  they  were  already  advanced  in  arts 
and  learning.  They  brought  their  learning  with  them  and 
implanted  it  in  the  conquered  countries.  And  for  many 
generations  Spain  owed  her  advance  in  the  arts  of  peace  to 
the'domination  of  the  Arabs, 


32  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  VIII 

THE  DEFEAT  OF  THE  SARACENS— THE 
RISE  OF  THE  CAROLINGIANS— THE 
DONATION  OF  PEPIN 

IN  the  east  Christian  Constantinople  had  stood  as  a  bulwark 
against  the  Arab  invasion.  But  in  spite  of  that  the  Mo- 
hammedans had  made  an  entrance  through  the  western 
gate  of  Europe,  and  it  seemed  as  if  nothing  could  now  stay 
their  conquering  march.  Yet  stayed  it  was. 

The  kingdom  of  the  Franks  (see  Chapter  II)  was  the  only 
one  of  the  Teutonic  kingdoms  built  upon  the  ruins  of  the 
Roman  Empire  which  was  to  endure.  But  for  many  years 
after  the  reign  of  Clovis  its  history  was  one  of  turmoil  and 
bloodshed.  It  was  divided  and  redivided  more  than  once. 
After  a  time  the  Merovingian  kings  lost  their  vigour  and 
manliness.  They  became  mere  figureheads  and  are  known 
as  the  Rois  Faineants  or  Do  Nothing  kings. 

Surrounded  by  luxury  and  pomp,  they  sat  in  their  palaces, 
combing  their  long  golden  hair,  indolently  dreaming  the 
time  away,  while  all  the  business  of  state  drifted  more  and 
more  into  the  hands  of  the  mayors  of  the  palace.  These 
mayors  had  been  at  first  little  more  than  the  managers  of 
the  royal  household;  in  time  they  became  dukes,  and  at 
length  kings  in  all  but  name. 

Charles  the  Hammer 

The  greatest  of  the  mayors  was  Charles  the  Hammer.  It 
was  he  who  now  gathered  all  the  strength  of  the  Frankish 
kingdom  to  fight  the  Saracen  foe,  and  roll  back  the  dark 
.menace  of  Mohammedanism  from  western  Europe. 

The  battle  in  which  the  Franks  and  Saracens  met  is  one 


THE  BATTLE  OF  TOURS  33 

of  the  memorable  battles  of  the  world.  For  it  was  not  so 
much  the  Franks  and  Saracens  who  were  arrayed  against 
each  other  as  Europe  and  Asia,  Christianity  and  Mohamme- 
danism. If  the  Franks  were  beaten,  then  all  Europe  was 
at  the  mercy  of  the  Saracens.  For  behind  the  Franks  there 
was  no  power  to  stop  their  march,  nothing  but  still  heathen 
Germany.  It  was  true  Constantinople  held  the  gate  of 
Europe  in  the  east.  But  if  the  foe  made  an  entry  in  the 
west  would  that  shut  gate  avail  ? 

Battle  of  Tours 

The  fight  which  now  took  place  between  these  two  great  732 
forces  is  often  called  the  battle  of  Tours,  but  it  was  really 
fought  nearer  the  town  of  Poitiers.*  Here  the  fair  Teutons 
of  the  north,  steel  clad,  heavily  armed,  and  somewhat  slow 
of  movement,  met  the  dark-faced,  agile  men  of  Asia. 
Mounted  upon  Arab  coursers,  the  Saracens  again  and  again 
dashed  upon  the  solid  wall  of  the  Teutons.  Again  and  again 
they  were  broken  and  scattered  like  waves  upon  a  rocky 
coast.  Yet,  undismayed,  they  returned  to  the  attack,  and 
above  the  din  of  clashing  steel  there  rose  the  shout,  "  Allah, 
Allah  Akbar !  " 

The  fortune  of  the  day  seemed  uncertain.  Then  suddenly 
throughout  the  Saracen  army  the  cry  arose  that  the  Chris- 
tians were  attacking  from  behind,  and  that  the  Saracen  camp 
with  all  its  rich  booty  was  in  danger.  In  a  flash  a  great 
body  of  the  Arab  cavalry  wheeled  about,  and  dashed  to  save 
the  treasure.  Their  greed  cost  them  the  day.  With  a  shout 
the  Franks  charged,  and  before  that  mighty  onslaught  the 
Arabs  fled  like  dust  before  the  wind. 

The  sun  went  down  upon  the  victory  of  the  Franks.  But 
how  complete  that  victory  was  Charles  the  Hammer  did  not 
know  until  next  morning,  when  he  found  the  Arab  camp 
empty  and  deserted.  Nor  did  he  at  this  time  follow  up  his 

*  See  map,  p.  47. 

C 


34  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

advantage.  Seven  years  later,  however,  he  again  attacked  the 
Saracens,  and  at  length  drove  them  out  of  France  altogether. 
Hence  his  name — the  Hammer. 

By  his  victories  over  the  Saracens  Charles  made  a  great 
name  for  himself,  and  the  pope,  now  Gregory  III,  sent  to 
him  to  implore  aid  against  the  Lombards,  who  still  distressed 
Italy.  But  Charles  was  friendly  with  the  Lombard  king, 
Luitprand,  and  had  no  wish  to  fight  against  him.  So, 
although  he  received  the  pope's  messenger  with  all  honour, 
and  loaded  him  with  gifts,  he  sent  him  back  to  Rome  with- 
out any  promise  of  help.  Again  the  following  year  Gregory 
sent  to  Charles,  abjuring  him  by  the  true  and  living  God 
not  to  prefer  the  friendship  of  the  Lombards  to  that  of  the 
prince  of  the  Apostles.  But  again  Charles  failed  to  give  the 
741  answer  for  which  the  pope  craved,  and  soon  afterwards  he 
died. 

Pepin  and  the  Pope 

Charles  had  been  king  of  the  Franks  in  all  but  name,  and 
now  his  son  Pepin,  who  ruled  after  him,  made  up  his  mind  to 
be  king  in  name  as  well  as  in  fact.  So  he  sent  messengers 
to  the  pope,  now  Zacharias,  to  ask  whether  he  who  remained 
in  his  palace  free  from  all  peril,  or  he  who  had  the  cares  and 
dangers  of  the  kingdom  on  his  shoulders,  should  have  the 
title  of  king. 

Already  it  would  seem  as  if  the  pope  was  regarded  as  a 
lawgiver  to  princes,  and  Zacharias  replied  as  Pepin  had 
desired  he  should.  "  By  the  authority  of  the  Apostle 
Peter  "  he  bade  the  Franks  acknowledge  for  their  king  he 
who  possessed  the  royal  power.  So  the  last  Merovingian 
king  was  shorn  of  his  flowing  locks,  the  sign  of  his  sovereignty, 
and  sent  to  end  his  days  in  a  convent,  and  Pepin  became  the 
752  first  Carolingian  king  of  the  Franks. 

The  accession  of  Pepin  was  not  merely  the  beginning  of  a 
new  dynasty.  It  was  the  beginning  of  new  claims  both  for 


PEPIN,  FIRST  KING  OF  FRANCE  35 

king  and  priest,  it  was  an  exalting  both  of  Church  and  state. 
Formerly  when  the  Franks  had  chosen  a  chief,  standing  upon 
his  shield  he  was  raised  shoulder  high  by  his  warriors,  who 
acclaimed  him  king  and  ruler.  Now  with  solemn  ceremony, 
surrounded  by  bishops  and  priests,  Pepin  was  led  to  the  great 
church  at  Soissons.  There,  kneeling  upon  the  steps  of  the 
altar,  he  was  crowned  and  anointed  by  Boniface,  the  Apostle 
of  the  Germans.  He  was  the  chosen  now  of  God  and  of  the 
Church,  and  kingship  took  a  new  and  holy  character. 

Pepin,  King  by  the  Grace  of  God 

Here  we  have  the  beginning  of  "  kings  by  the  Grace  of 
God,"  and  of  that  "  divine  right  "  which  in  days  to  come  was 
to  bring  in  its  train  such  grievous  woes  and  cause  such 
desperate  struggles  between  kings  and  peoples. 

The  pope  already  looked  upon  Pepin's  crown  as  the  gift 
of  the  Church.  And  the  gifts  of  the  Church  were  not  given 
without  expectation  of  return.  So  very  soon  Pepin  was 
called  upon  to  show  his  gratitude.  For  the  year  after  his 
coronation  a  new  Lombard  king  and  a  new  pope  ruled  in 
Italy,  and,  disregarding  the  peace  which  had  been  made  by 
King  Luitprand,  King  Aistulph  renewed  the  attacks  on  Rome 
and  on  Ravenna.  The  pope,  Stephen  II,  then  sent  piteous 
appeals  for  help  to  Pepin,  and  as  he  did  not  yield  to  them 
immediately,  he  resolved  to  make  an  appeal  in  person. 

Midwinter  although  it  was,  he  hastened  across  the  Alps,  754 
braving  "  frost  and  snow,  many  waters  and  rushing  tor- 
rents," as  he  himself  writes.  But  in  spite  of  hardships  and 
dangers  he  reached  France  in  safety,  and  followed  by  his 
priests  he  went  at  once  to  greet  the  king.  Clad  in  a  coarse 
woollen  robe,  and  with  ashes  sprinkled  on  his  head,  he  bowed 
himself  before  Pepin,  imploring  his  help.  Nor  would  he  rise 
until  his  prayer  was  granted. 

Pepin  promised  the  aid  for  which  the  pope  begged,  and 
in  return  the  pope  orfee  more  crowned  Pepin,  and  anointed 


36  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

both  his  queen  and  her  children.  Then,  under  pain  of  ex- 
communication, he  forbade  the  Franks  ever  to  choose  a 
king  save  from  this  family  "  thus  consecrated  upon  the 
intercession  of  the  holy  Apostles  by  the  hands  of  their  vicar 
the  sovereign  pontiff." 

The  new  coronation  over,  the  pope  gave  to  Pepin  and  his 
sons  the  title  of  patrician  of  Rome.  It  was  a  title  created  by 
Constantine  the  Great,  and  could  be  conferred  only  by  an 
emperor,  so  in  giving  it  to  Pepin  and  his  sons  Stephen 
usurped  the  authority  of  the  emperor.  But  as  the  emperor 
showed  himself  more  and  more  incapable  of  protecting 
Rome,  and  more  and  more  indifferent  to  its  fate,  both  pope 
and  people  had  begun  to  forget  that  they  owed  any  allegiance 
to  him,  and  this  usurpation  was  only  one  among  many  signs 
that  Italy  was  no  longer  truly  a  part  of  the  Empire. 
754  Shortly  after  his  second  coronation  Pepin  set  out  to  re- 
*j**  deem  his  promise  to  Stephen.  In  two  campaigns  he  con- 
quered the  Lombard  king,  Aistulph,  and  forced  him  to  give 
up  Ravenna  and  the  other  parts  of  Italy  which  he  had  lately 
seized. 

The  Donation  of  Pepin 

Italy,  and  especially  Ravenna,  were  still  in  theory  part  of 
the  Empire.  But  Pepin  considered  that  these  provinces  were 
now  his  by  right  of  conquest,  and  that  he  could  do  with  them 
as  he  pleased.  And  so  much  of  a  phantom  had  the  right  of 
the  emperor  become  that  he  caused  a  deed  of  gift  to  be 
written  out,  bestowing  the  conquered  lands  not  upon  the 
emperor  but  upon  St.  Peter  and  his  successors,  the  sovereign 
pontiffs,  for  all  time. 

The  pope  well  knew  the  value  of  the  gift.  With  solemn 
ceremony  the  keys  of  the  conquered  cities,  together  with  the 
deed  of  gift,  were  laid  upon  the  tomb  of  St.  Peter  in  Rome. 
Then  they  were  locked  up  by  the  pope  among  his  most 
precious  treasures.  £ 


CHARLEMAGNE  m  37 

This  presentation  of  lands  to  the  pope  is  called  the  Dona- 
tion of  Pepin.  By  it  the  Papal  States  were  founded,  and  the  756 
pope,  from  being  little  more  than  a  priestly  farmer,  became  a 
ruling  prince,  and  took  his  place  among  the  sovereigns  of 
Europe.  Thus  king  and  pope  helped  to  make  each  other 
great.  But  there  seems  little  question  that  the  pope  was 
the  greater  gainer.  The  king  had  only  received  the  Church's 
sanction  to  hold  the  kingdom  which  he,  in  fact,  already  had  ; 
the  pope  had  gained  possession  of  a  kingdom  which  without 
Pepin's  aid  he  could  never  have  hoped  to  win.  Yet  in  the 
long  run  by  thus  entering  the  ranks  of  temporal  rulers  the 
Church  was  to  lose  as  a  spiritual  institution  and  power  for 
good. 


CHAPTER  IX 

THE  REIGN  OF  CHARLEMAGNE— THE 
BEGINNING  OF  THE  HOLY  ROMAN 
EMPIRE 

IN  A.D.  768  Charles  the  Great,  or  Charlemagne  as  he  is  usually 
called,  succeeded  his  father  Pepin.  He  was  a  great  statesman 
and  a  great  conqueror,  one  of  his  first  conquests  being  that  of 
the  Lombards.  As  we  have  seen  during  the  life  of  Pepin,  the 
bonds  between  the  Catholic  king  of  the  Franks  and  the  pope 
had  become  very  close.  Indeed,  the  pope  had  come  to 
regard  the  king  of  the  Franks  as  a  faithful  son  of  the  Church 
to  whom  he  might  turn  for  aid  at  all  times. 

Soon,  therefore,  after  Charlemagne  came  to  the  throne,  the 
pope,  Adrian  I,  appealed  to  him  for  help  against  the  Lom- 
bards. So  across  the  Alps  Charlemagne  passed  with  a 
mighty  army.  In  no  long  time  the  cities  of  Lombardy 
yielded  to  him,  Pavia  only  holding  out  for  six  months.  But 


38  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

that,  too,  fell,  and  Charlemagne  entered  in  triumph  into  the 
capital  of  the  Lombard  kingdom.  Desiderius,  the  last  king 
of  the  Lombards,  was  taken  prisoner,  his  head  was  shaved, 
774  and  he  was  sent  to  France,  there  to  end  his  days  in  a 
monastery. 

Thus  the  rule  of  the  Lombards  in  Italy,  which  had  lasted 
for  two  hundred  years,  came  to  an  end.  But  unlike  his 
father,  Charlemagne  did  not  hand  over  all  his  conquests 
to  the  pope.  He  placed  the  crown  of  Lombardy  on  his  own 
head,  added  the  kingdom  to  his  alread}^  great  territory, 
and  henceforth  called  himself  king  of  the  Franks  and  of 
Lombardy. 

But  greater  than  Charlemagne's  conquest  of  the  Lombards 
was  his  conquest  of  the  Saxons.  At  this  date  a  large  part  of 
what  is  now  Germany  was  still  pathless  forest  and  swamp, 
inhabited  by  wild  heathen  Saxons.  Now  Charlemagne's 
great  desire  was  to  bring  all  German  peoples  into  one 
Christian  empire.  He  dreamt  of  a  great  Germanic  empire 
in  which  the  people  would  speak  one  language,  worship  one 
God,  and  obey  one  ruler.  So  he  determined  upon  the 
conquest  of  the  Saxons. 

But  to  conquer  the  Saxons  was  no  easy  matter.  Year  by 
year,  when  spring  came,  with  dogged  determination  Charle- 
magne set  forth  to  attack  them  in  their  strongholds,  and  hav- 
ing, as  he  thought,  subdued  and  converted  them,  he  returned 
home.  But  year  by  year,  with  equally  dogged  determina- 
tion, as  soon  as  he  was  gone  the  Saxons  rose  in  rebellion. 
They  slew  the  priests  and  governors  he  had  left  among  them, 
burned  the  churches  he  had  built,  and  returned  once  more 
to  the  worship  of  their  gloomy  heathen  gods. 

For  thirty  years  the  struggle  lasted.  But  not  unlike  the 
Mohammedans,  Charlemagne  was  determined  to  convert 
the  world,  even  at  the  sword's  point  if  need  be.  So  by 
thousands  he  slew  the  Saxons.  By  thousands  he  baptized 
them.  He  made  cruel  laws  against  those  who  clung  to  their 


CONQUEST  OF  THE  SAXONS  39 

heathen  faith,  or  those  who  dared  to  return  to  it  after  they 
had  been  "  converted  "  and  baptized  by  force.  He  carried 
thousands  of  men,  women,  and  children  away  from  their 
homes,  and  planted  colonies  of  them  in  France. 

Thus,  with  the  harshest  and  most  cruel  of  methods,  he 
forced  the  religion  of  love  and  brotherly  kindness  upon  his 
fellow-men.  And  at  length  the  Saxons  submitted,  and  all  Ger- 
many as  far  as  the  Elbe  was  added  to  Charlemagne's  kingdom.  804 

Charlemagne  fought,  too,  with  the  pirate  Danes  of  the 
north,  with  Slavs  and  Avars  in  the  east,  and  with  the 
Saracens  of  Spain.  But  although  by  these  campaigns  he 
added  to  his  territory  or  his  fame,  none  of  his  conquests  were 
so  important  as  those  over  the  Lombards  and  the  Saxons. 

Missi  Dominici 

Besides  being  a  great  conqueror  Charlemagne  was  also  a 
great  statesman.  As  a  conqueror  he  was  terrible,  but  once 
a  people  submitted  to  him  he  became  a  wise  and  tolerant 
ruler.  He  allowed  the  conquered  peoples  to  a  great  extent 
to  keep  their  own  customs  and  laws,  and  often  he  appointed 
a  native  chief  as  their  duke  or  ruler. 

His  greatest  institution,  perhaps,  was  that  of  the  Missi 
Dominici  or  king's  messengers.  These  king's  messengers 
were  officers  whom  he  sent  into  all  parts  of  his  kingdom  to  see 
that  the  laws  were  kept  and  that  no  one  suffered  injustice,  to 
listen  to  complaints,  and  generally  to  attend  to  all  matters 
in  connexion  with  the  state. 

In  spring  each  year  Charlemagne  held  a  great  parliament, 
which,  from  the  time  of  year,  was  called  the  Mayfield.  To 
this  the  king's  messengers  came,  bringing  with  them  their 
reports.  Thus,  although  Charlemagne's  kingdom  was  so 
large  that  he  could  not  himself  visit  every  portion  of  it  every 
year,  through  his  messengers  he  learnt  what  was  going  on 
in  each  part  of  it,  and  could  thus  keep  it  under  control. 

Another  of  Charlemagne's  great  works  was  the  institution 


40  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

of  schools.  When  he  came  to  the  throne  there  was  hardly  a 
school  throughout  the  length  and  breadth  of  his  kingdom,  and 
he  himself  could  neither  read  nor  write.  But  he  knew  how 
important  a  thing  learning  was,  so  he  encouraged  it  in  every 
way  possible. 

As  there  were  no  learned  men  among  the  Franks,  Charle- 
magne sought  them  from  other  countries,  offering  them  large 
rewards  if  they  would  come  to  teach  his  people.     Many 
answered  his  call,  but  none  among  them  helped  him  so  much 
735-  as  the  Englishman,  Alcuin  of  York.    He  became  master  of  the 
804   school  which  Charlemagne  founded  in  his  own  palace,  and 
of  which  Charlemagne  himself  was  a  pupil. 

Besides  this  one  in  the  palace  many  other  schools  were 
founded  throughout  the  kingdom,  in  connection  with  the 
churches  and  monasteries.  In  these  not  only  the  sons  of 
noblemen  but  the  sons  of  freemen  and  others  of  lesser  degree 
learned  to  read  and  write.  Libraries  also  were  founded,  so 
that  those  who  learned  to  love  literature  might  not  be  utterly 
destitute  of  books  to  read.  For  in  those  days,  one  must 
remember,  few  private  people  could  afford  to  possess  books. 
They  were  all  written  by  hand  upon  vellum  or  parchment, 
and  were  often  beautifully  decorated  with  coloured  initials 
and  pictures.  Writing  or  copying  a  book  was  slow  work, 
so  there  were  comparatively  few  to  be  had,  and  they  cost  a 
great  deal  of  money. 

Both  in  peace  and  war  Charlemagne  was  the  greatest 
figure  of  his  times.     His  fame  and  power  far  surpassed  that 
of  the  emperor.     Either  in  war  or  peace  he  had  dealings 
and  with  all  the  chief  rulers  of  Europe.      It  is  said  that  he 
801  even    sent    embassies    to    the    great    caliph    of    Bagdad, 
763  or  Harun  Alraschid,  or  Harun  the  Just,  who  is  best  known 
6~809  to  Europe  through  the  "  Arabian  Nights."     He  little  de- 
served his  surname,  being  in  truth  a  cruel  tyrant  caring 
nothing  for  the  happiness  of  his  people.     He  was  constantly 
at  war  with  the  Empire,  but  he  received  the  embassies  of 


EMPRESS  IRENE  AND  THE  ICONOCLASTS     41 

the  "  Christian  dog  "  with  at  least  outward  politeness  and 
sent  him  rich  gifts,  among  them  an  elephant,  the  first  ever 
seen  in  the  land  of  the  Franks. 

Charlemagne  ruled  in  Italy  as  the  emperors  had  never 
done  since  the  days  of  Justinian.  And  as  years  went  on  the 
idea  that  Italy  owed  any  fealty  to  the  emperor  faded  more 
and  more  from  the  minds  of  the  people,  while,  at  the  same 
time,  an  enmity  between  pope  and  emperor  grew. 

Iconoclasts  and  the  Eastern  Empire 

Quarrels  had  arisen  between  the  Church  of  the  East  and  the 
Church  of  the  West.  The  eastern  bishops  condemned  the 
use  of  images,  and  wished  to  have  them  abolished  ;  the  pope 
upheld  their  use  and  denounced  the  emperor  as  a  heretic, 
because  it  was  he  who  instigated  the  bishops.  Those  who 
wished  to  banish  images  from  the  churches  were  called 
Iconoclasts,  or  image-breakers. 

The  war  between  the  Iconoclasts  and  the  Catholics  waged 
fiercely.  Then  there  came  a  revolution  in  Constantinople. 
The  beautiful  bad  Empress  Irene  caused  her  son  the  Emperor 
Constantine  VI  to  be  blinded,  and  herself  usurped  the  throne.  792 
But  although  the  people  cheered  her  and  acclaimed  her 
Augusta,  as  she  drove  through  the  streets  in  her  gilded 
chariot,  there  were  many  who  were  filled  with  anger  because 
a  woman  sat  upon  the  throne  of  the  Caesars. 

Among  these  was  the  pope,  and  even  although  Irene  had 
restored  the  use  of  images  in  the  churches,  his  wrath  against 
her  was  not  appeased.  He  became  more  unwilling  than  ever 
to  acknowledge  any  allegiance  to  the  Empire,  and  at  length 
he  took  a  step  which  wiped  away  the  last  pretence  of  it. 

About  this  time  documents,  which  are  called  the  False 
Decretals,  and  the  Constitutium  Constantini,  or  the  Donation 
of  Constantine,  became  known  to  the  public.  They  have 
been  proved  to  be  forgeries,  but  upon  them  much  of  the  power 
of  the  popes  was  founded.  For,  by  the  Donation  of  Con- 


42  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

stantine,  it  was  said  that  Constantine  the  Great  had  given  to 
Pope  Silvester  and  his  successors  the  sovereignty  of  all 
Italy  when  he  built  his  new  capital  on  the  Bosphorus.  This 
he  had  done,  it  was  said,  out  of  gratitude  to  the  Church, 
because  on  being  baptized  he  had  been  cured  of  leprosy. 
By  this  Donation  the  popes  were  clearly  freed  from  all  over- 
lordship  of  the  emperors,  who  had  of  late  proved  them- 
selves but  poor  champions  of  Italy,  and  the  way  was  left 
open  for  the  popes  to  choose  a  stronger  staff  to  lean  upon. 

Coronation  of  Charlemagne 

Towards  the  end  of  the  year  800  Charlemagne  paid  a 
visit  to  Rome,  and  on  Christmas  Day,  with  a  gorgeous  train 
of  knights  and  nobles,  he  went  to  the  Church  of  St.  Peter  * 
to  hear  mass.  The  great  church,  already  five  centuries  old, 
was  filled  to  overflowing.  Beneath  the  light  of  numberless 
candles,  gold  and  gems  gleamed  and  glittered,  priests  in 
rich  robes  moved  silently  hither  and  thither,  and  the  sound  of 
sweet  singing  rose  and  fell. 
Xmas  Mass  was  over.  But  the  king  still  knelt  on  the  steps  of  the 
altar,  and  a  breathless  silence  held  the  great  congregation. 
Then,  as  the  king  rose  from  his  knees,  Pope  Leo  III  came 
towards  him  holding  a  golden  crown  high  in  his  hands,  and 
placed  it  upon  the  monarch's  head. 

"  To  Charles  Augustus,  crowned  by  God,  mighty  and 
pacific  Emperor,  be  life  and  victory,"  he  cried. 

The  crowd  took  up  the  words,  and  three  times  the  great 
building  rang  with  acclamations.  Then  came  an  outburst 
of  song,  and  in  chant  after  chant  the  voices  of  the  choristers 
rose,  beseeching  God  and  His  angels,  and  all  the  holy 
martyrs,  to  bless  and  aid  the  new-crowned  emperor. 

The  Holy  Roman  Empire 

Thus  began  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  which  was  to  endure 

*  Old  St.  Peter's,  built  in  the  time  of  Constantine  the  Great,     hj 


THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE        43 

for  a  thousand  years  and  be  shattered  at  length  by  an 
upstart  Corsican  soldier. 

Was  Charlemagne  surprised  and  not  altogether  pleased  to 
find  this  great  title  thus  suddenly  thrust  upon  him  ?  Who 
can  say  ?  "  Had  I  known  what  Leo  was  about  to  do,"  he 
said,  later,  "  I  would  never  have  entered  St.  Peter's  on  that 
Christmas  morning."  Yet  for  many  years  his  thoughts  had 
turned  to  some  such  title.  Perhaps,  however,  he  wished  to 
take  it  at  his  own  time,  and  of  his  own  free  will,  and  not  to 
have  it  thrust  upon  him  by  an  officious  pope.  Perhaps  he 
saw  that  this  act  conferred  more  power  upon  the  pope  than 
honour  upon  the  emperor,  and  that  the  time  might  come  (as 
come  it  did)  when  no  king  of  the  Germans  would  dare  to 
take  the  title  of  emperor  until  the  crown  had  been  placed 
upon  his  head. by  the  bishop  of  Rome. 

When  the  news  of  this  coronation  reached  Constantinople 
there  was  great  wrath,  and  Charlemagne's  right  to  take  the 
title  of  Augustus  was  denied.  But  Charlemagne  did  his 
best  to  soothe  that  wrath.  He  tried  to  arrange  marriages 
between  his  own  family  and  the  Empress  Irene,  and  thus 
again  unite  the  Empires  of  the  East  and  West.  But  these 
efforts  came  to  nothing,  and  less  than  two  years  after  Charle- 
magne was  crowned  emperor  Irene  was  deposed  and  soon 
after  died. 


CHAPTER  X 

THE  TREATY  OF  VERDUN— THE  BE- 
GINNING OF  FRANCE,  ITALY,  AND 
GERMANY 

CHARLEMAGNE   ruled   as   ernperor  for   more  than  thirteen  800- 
years,    during  which    time  three  emperors  sat  upon   the  814 


44  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Byzantine  throne.  With  them  all  Charlemagne  endeavoured 
to  keep  peace,  sending  them  embassies,  and  calling  them 
brother ;  but  it  was  not  until  the  year  812  that  the  Emperor 
Michael  formally  recognized  Charlemagne's  right  to  the 
imperial  title. 

Then  for  hundreds  of  years  there  were  two  emperors,  one 
in  the  East  and  one  in  the  West,  each  claiming  to  be  the 
rightful  heir  of  the  Caesars. 

But  although  in  the  West  the  title  of  emperor  endured, 
Charlemagne's  Empire  fell  to  pieces  soon  after  his  death, 
the  whole  state  being  filled  with  discord  and  violence.  For 
it  was  built  upon  no  solid  foundation,  but  upon  the  will  of 
one  man. 

•     The  Sons  of  Louis  the  Pious 

Charlemagne  had  many  sons,  but  only  one  survived  him. 

814-  He  is  known  as  Louis  the  Pious,  and  was  more  fitted  for  the 

840    cloister  than  the  throne.     Even  in  his  lifetime  his  unruly 

sons  tried  to  rend  the  Empire  from  him,  and  after  his  death 

they  quarrelled  among  themselves  over  their  inheritance. 

After  a  time  the  two  younger  of  these  sons,  Louis  and  Charles, 

joined  together  against  Lothaire,  the  elder. 

842      At  Strasburg  they  met  together,  and  swore  an  oath  of 

eternal  friendship.     The  taking  of  this  oath  was  made  an 

occasion  of  solemn  ceremony.     The  two  armies  were  drawn 

up  facing  each  other  upon  the  plain,  and  in  the  space  between 

the  kings,  in  gorgeous  robes,  glittering  with  gold  and  jewels, 

met.     Each  made  a  speech,  and  then  with  great  solemnity 

swore  to  stand  by  the  other. 

Louis,  being  the  elder,  spoke  first.  "  For  the  love  of 
God,"  he  said,  "  and  for  this  Christian  people  and  our  com- 
mon salvation,  as  much  as  God  gives  me  to  know  and  to  do, 
I  will  aid  my  brother  Charles  in  all  things  as  one  ought 
rightly  to^  aid  one's  brother,  on  condition  that  he  does  as 
much  for  me.  And  I  will  never  willingly  make  any  com- 


THE  OATH  OF  STRASBURG  45 

pact  with  Lothaire  which  may  injure  this  my  brother 
Charles." 

Louis  repeated  the  same  words  but  in  another  language. 
For  the  interesting  thing  about  this  oath  is  that  it  was  taken 
in  two  languages.  It  had  been  the  dream  of  Charlemagne's 
life  to  unite  all  the  Germans  under  one  sceptre,  so  that  they 
should  be  one  people,  speaking  one  language,  and  owning 
one  ruler. 

Before  he  died  he  had  even  begun  to  write  a  German 
grammar.  But  already,  less  than  thirty  years  after  his 
death,  there  were  two  such  widely  differing  languages  spoken 
within  the  Empire  that  the  Frankish  soldiers  of  Charles  and 
the  Saxon  soldiers  of  Louis  could  not  understand  each  other. 
So  Louis,  speaking  to  his  brother's  Franks,  spoke  their 
language,  and  Charles,  addressing  the  Saxon  soldiers,  used 
another  language. 

Out  of  those  two  languages  have  grown  modern  French 
and  modern  German. 

You  may  see  how  they  have  developed  from  the  few  words 
from  the  beginning  of  the  oath  which  follow  : 

Old  French :  "  Pro  Deo  amur  et  pro  Christian  poble  et 
nostro  commun  salvament." 

Modern  French :  "  Pour  Y  amour  de  Dieu,  et  pour  le 
salut  commun  du  peuple  cretien  et  le  notre." 

Old  German :  "In  Godes  Minna  ind  in  thes  Christianes 
folches  ind  unser  bedhero  gehaltnissi." 

Modern  German :  "  Aus  Liebe  zu  Gott  und  des  Christ- 
licher  Volkes  sowie  unser  beider  Heiles  halber." 

Those  of  you  who  know  Latin  can  see  at  once  what  a 
strong  influence  that  language  had  on  the  French  spoken 
in  the  ninth  century.  The  Vandals  and  the  Goths,  who  had, 
in  turn,  conquered  Gaul,  left  no  trace  even  on  the  language. 
The  Franks  left  little,  and  to-day  there  are  not  more  than 
a  thousand  wo^ds  of  Germanic  origin  in  the  whole  French 


46  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

language.  Still  fewer  words  can  be  traced  to  Celtic — the 
original  language  of  the  Gauls.  Latin,  the  language  of  the 
Romans,  is  the  chief  element.  Therefore  we  call  it  a 
Romance  language — that  is,  one  founded  upon  and  de- 
veloped from  the  language  spoken  by  the  ancient  Romans. 
Italian  and  Spanish  are  also  Romance  languages,  for  in 
spite  of  repeated  conquests  by  Vandals,  Goths,  Lombards, 
and  Saracens,  Latin  remained  the  chief  element  in  them. 

Latin,  on  the  other  hand,  had  little  influence  on  the  German 
language,  which  is  merely  a  development  of  the  old  German 
tongue.  Germany  never  came  under  the  civilizing  influ- 
ences of  Rome,  and  its  language,  among  other  things,  has 
remained  the  most  primitive  and  undeveloped  language  in 
Europe. 

The  Treaty  of  Verdun 

In  the  Strasburg  oath  we  see  the  beginnings  of  modern 
French  and  of  modern  German.  In  the  following  year  we 
see  the  beginnings  of  the  separate  existence  of  the  two 
843  countries.  For  then  all  three  brothers  met  together  once 
more  and  signed  the  treaty  known  as  the  Treaty  of  Verdun, 
by  which  they  agreed  to  divide  the  Empire.  Lothaire,  being 
the  eldest,  kept  the  title  of  Emperor,  and  to  him  was  given 
Italy  and  a  strip  of  land  west  of  the  Rhine,  running  right 
through  the  Empire,  from  the  Mediterranean  to  the  North 
Sea. 

The  land  which  lay  east  of  this  was  given  to  Louis,  and 
the  land  which  lay  west  of  it  was  given  to  Charles.  Save 
that  the  two  kingdoms  were  divided  by  the  strip  of  land 
belonging  to  Lothaire,  the  land  of  Charles  took  roughly  the 
form  of  the  France  of  to-day,  that  of  Louis  the  form  of 
Germany.  Here,  then,  we  have  the  beginnings  of  three 
great  states — France,  Germany,  and  Italy. 

Nearly  four  hundred  years  had  passed  since  the  last  Roman 
emperor  of  the  West  had  been  swept  from  his  throne  by  an 


. , .     '  A< :  SHO-ET .  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


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THE  TEUTONIC  BEQUEST  49 

audacious  Teuton.  And  in  the  turmoil  of  these  centuries 
it  would  seem  as  if  the  Teutons  had  brought  nothing  in  their 
train  but  bloodshed  and  discord  and  the  destruction  of  art 
and  learning.  But  to  the  reforming  of  Europe  out  of  the 
fragments  of  the  shattered  Roman  Empire  the  Teutons 
brought  something  new. 

In  Rome  the  state  was  everything,  the  individual  nothing. 
There  was  a  great  gulf  between  the  powerful  wealthy  and 
the  powerless  poor,  between  the  slave  and  the  slave-owner. 
The  slave-owner  was  almighty,  the  slave  a1  mere  chattel. 
But  among  the  Teutons  there  were  no  slaves.  They  were  a 
free  people,  and  each  man  was  conscious  of  his  own  personal 
worth  in  the  community.  The  idea  of  this  individual  free- 
dom was  the  Teutonic  bequest  to  future  ages.  But  in  the 
torn  fragments  of  the  Roman  Empire  out  of  which  new 
nations  were  being  hammered,  side  by  side  with  this  idea  of 
personal  freedom  there  grew  up  another  power  which  was, 
to  a  great  extent,  to  nullify  it.  This  was  the  papal  power. 

For  many  centuries  in  all  the  states  of  southern  Europe 
the  power  of  the  Church  was  supreme.  Only  in  the  island 
of  Britain,  separated  from  the  continent  of  Europe  by  the 
narrow  seas,  the  power  of  the  pope  was  never  felt  in  its 
full  force.  It  was  there,  therefore,  that  this  idea  of  freedom 
was  allowed  to  grow  with  least  opposition,  and  at  length 
developed  fully. 


CHAPTER  XI 
THE  COMING  OF  THE  NORTHMEN 

IN  the  last  chapter  we  saw  the  dim  beginnings  of  France, 
Italy,  and  Germany.  But  hundreds  of  years  were  to  pass 
before  these  kingdoms  really  became  settled.  The  period 

p 


50  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

which  followed  the  Treaty  of  Verdun  was  one  of  constant 
turmoil  and  bloodshed,  for  the  kings  were  often  feeble, 
sometimes  bad,  and  their  subjects  were  turbulent  and  re- 
bellious. Even  a  strong  king  had  endless  difficulties  to  face. 

First,  there  was  the  lack  of  roads.  One  of  the  first  things 
the  Romans  did  in  a  conquered  country  was  to  build  roads. 
They  knew  that  roads  were  great  conquerors  and  great  civil- 
izers.  But  the  barbarians  who  split  up  the  Roman  Empire 
did  not  know  the  value  of  roads,  so  the  wonderful  Roman 
highways  were  allowed  to  fall  into  disrepair.  In  Saxony, 
which  the  Romans  had  never  conquered,  there  were  no  roads 
at  all.  The  difficulties,  therefore,  of  travelling  from  one 
part  of  the  kingdom  to  another  were  immense,  the  transport 
of  an  army  extremely  difficult.  Without  roads,  too,  com- 
merce languished. 

Secondly,  the  king  was  almost  always  poor,  for  the  system 
of  taxation  was  very  imperfect.  Being  unable  quickly  to 
travel  all  over  the  kingdom  himself,  the  king  was  obliged  to 
depute  much  of  his  authority  to  dukes  and  counts.  Having 
little  money,  he  paid  them  for  their  services  in  land,  and  their 
possessions  often  became  so  great  that  they  were  really  more 
powerful  than  the  king  himself,  and  rebelled  against  his 
authority.  So  civil  wars  were  constant. 

Besides  these  and  other  internal  disturbances,  there  were 
frequent  attacks  from  without  to  be  repelled,  and  these 
alone  were  enough  to  prevent  Europe  from  settling  into 
peace. 

Soon  after  the  death  of  Charlemagne  the  Saracens  seized 
the  island  of  Sicily,  overran  a  great  part  of  the  south  of  the 
Italian  Peninsula,  and  even  threatened  Rome  itself.  Avars 
and  Hungarians  from  the  wilds  of  Asia  swept  over  Germany 
and  northern  Italy,  and  reached  even  to  the  borders  of 
France,  and  at  length  settled  in  the  land  which  is  now  called 
Hungary.  And  lastly,  there  came  the  Northmen  They 
were  the  last  of  the  German  tribes  to  attack  the  civilization 


THE  HOME  OF  THE  NORTHMEN  51 

of  Europe,  and  they  left  more  impression  on  it  than  almost 
any  other,  although  they  themselves  became  absorbed  in  the 
peoples  they  conquered. 

The  Home  of  the  Northmen 

Of  their  early  history  we  know  little  or  nothing.  For  while 
in  southern  and  central  Europe  new  kingdoms  were  being 
hammered  out  of  the  old  Roman  Empire,  Europe  beyond  the 
Baltic  was  a  region  unknown.  Until  the  end  of  the  eighth 
century  we  know  almost  nothing  of  Scandinavia.  Nearly 
all  the  Teutonic  tribes,  it  is  true,  who  took  possession  of  the 
Empire  came,  or  had  traditions  of  having  come,  from  the 
far  north.  They  came  from  beyond  the  sluggish  sea  where 
dwelt  a  mighty  people  well  skilled  in  the  building  of  boats  ; 
they  came  "  from  the  edge  of  the  world."  But  little  was 
known  of  this  far-distant  country. 

Those  of  you  who  have  read  the  "  Germania "  of 
Tacitus  may  remember  how  he  speaks  of  these  northern 
peoples  and  their  land.  '  They  live  on  islands  in  the  sea/' 
he  says.  "  Their  strength  lies  not  in  military  forces  only, 
but  also  in  their  ships.  .  .  .  Beyond  the  islands  there  is 
another  sea  which  is  sluggish,  and  nearly  always  still.  It 
is  believed  to  encircle  the  earth,  for  here  the  light  of  the 
setting  sun  lasts  until  the  sun  rises  again,  and  the  light  is 
bright  enough  to  make  pale  the  stars.  Moreover,  it  is  said 
that  you  can  hear  the  sea  hiss  as  the  sun  rises  out  of  it  and 
see  the  god's  face,  and  the  halo  about  his  head.  This  is  the 
end  of  the  world,  it  is  said,  and  it  may  well  be  so." 

The  Northmen  as  Raiders 

Hundreds  of  years  passed,  and  people  knew  little  more 
about  this  strange  northern  country  than  they  did  in  the 
time  of  Tacitus.  At  length,  however,  towards  the  end  of  the 
eighth  century,  driven  by  poverty  and  the  necessity  of  finding 
new  homes,  or  merely  by  the  love  of  adventure,  the  heathen 


52  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Northmen  began  to  sail  forth  from  their  bays  and  fiords, 
and  attack  the  Christian  kingdoms  of  Europe.  They  came 
from  what  are  now  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark,  but 
in  those  days  men  called  them  all  indiscriminately,  Danes, 
Northmen,  Vikings,  or  men  of  the  bays  and  fiords.  The 
English  chronicles  generally  call  them  Danes,  the  French 
chronicles  generally  call  them  Northmen.  But,  by  whatever 
name  they  were  known,  they  made  themselves  for  a  hundred 
years  the  terror  of  seaboard  Europe. 

For  the  attacks  of  the  Northmen  differed  from  those  of 
any  other  barbarian  people  in  that  they  came  from  the  sea, 
and  not  from  the  land.  They  sailed  in  long,  narrow  vessels, 
capable  of  holding  fifty  or  sixty  men.  Bow  and  stern  were 
alike,  so  that  the  ship  could  be  steered  either  way,  and  they 
were  decorated  with  the  head  of  a  swan  or  dragon,  or  some 
other  animal.  But  the  dragon  was  the  favourite.  Rowers 
sat  along  the  sides  of  the  vessels,  and  there  was  also  one  large 
sail. 

Used  as  we  are  now  to  great  sea-going  monsters,  the  Viking 
ships  seem  the  merest  cockle-shells,  and  we  marvel  how  men 
could  venture  forth  upon  the  stormy  North  Sea  in  such  frail 
craft.  But  venture  forth  they  did,  even  upon  the  pathless 
ocean,  and  there  seems  now  little  doubt  that  five  hundred 
years  before  Columbus  the  hardy  Norsemen  had  landed 
upon  the  shores  of  North  America. 

These  dragon-ships  became  the  pest  of  the  seas  and  a 
terror  to  all  seaboard  dwellers.  It  was  a  new  terror,  too. 
For  hitherto  there  had  been  peace  upon  the  seas.  Huns, 
Avars,  Bulgars,  Goths,  Vandals,  Franks,  Lombards,  and  all 
the  other  lesser  tribes  which  had  swept  over  Europe  in  turn, 
had  made  their  attacks  by  land.  Except  for  Saracen  or 
Vandal  pirates,  the  seas  had  still  remained  the  peaceful 
routes  of  trade.  Now  that  was  changed.  War  and  blood- 
shed came  from  the  sea,  just  when  it  seemed  as  if  the  be- 
ginnings of  peace  might  dawn  on  land. 


NORTHMAN  SHIPS  AND  WEAPONS  53 

The  sea  was  the  Northman's  element.  Yet,  born  sailor 
although  he  was,  he  seemed  equally  at  home  on  land,  where 
he  proved  himself  a  skilful,  cunning,  and  absolutely  cold- 
blooded fighter.  They  were  blue-eyed,  fair-haired,  tall,  and 
sinewy  men.  They  wore  their  hair  in  long  plaits,  and  dressed 
in  gay  colours,  scarlet  being  much  loved  by  them.  They 
wore  coats  of  mail  and  great  horned  helmets,  and  were  armed 
with  bow  and  arrows,  hatchet,  spear,  and  sword. 

They  loved  war  and  the  ways  of  war  and  the  weapons 
of  war.  Their  songs  were  all  of  war  and  the  mighty  blows 
of  heroes,  and  in  these  songs  they  gave  poetic  names  to 
their  ships  and  weapons.  But  more  than  any  other  weapon 
they  loved  their  swords,  and  to  them  they  gave  the  most 
poetic  names,  such  as  "  the  lightning  of  war,"  "  the  thorn  of 
shields,"  "  the  helmet  biter."  The  hilts  and  scabbards  of 
these  swords  were  often  beautifully  inlaid  with  gold  and 
studded  with  jewels,  and  were  handed  on  from  hero  to  hero, 
and  prized  as  no  other  gift  was  prized. 

Armed,  then,  at  all  points,  these  joyous,  blood-thirsty 
pirates  set  forth  in  their  dragon-ships.  Along  the  sides 
they  hung  their  gaily  painted  shields,  ringed  and  bossed 
with  metal,  and  leaning  upon  their  spears,  they  stood  in  the 
prow,  while  the  short  oars  flashed,  and  the  wind  sang  through 
the  sail.  When  storm  winds  blew  and  others  sought  the 
shelter  of  the  shore,  the  dragon-ship  sped  forth,  spurning  as 
if  in  joy  the  foaming  waves.  Then,  as  day  dawned,  some 
sleeping  village  would  hear  the  Viking  battle-cry.  Then 
bright  swords  gleamed,  and  sparing  neither  man  nor  woman, 
these  Northmen  plundered  at  will.  At  length,  their  fury 
and  their  greed  sated,  they  mounted  into  their  ship  once  more 
and  sped  away  as  swiftly  as  they  had  come,  leaving  behind 
them  only  smoking,  blood-stained  ruins  where,  but  a  few 
hours  before,  peaceful  homes  had  stood. 

The  first  of  these  attacks  of  which  we  have  any  record  787 
was  upon  England,  towards  the  end  of  the  eighth  century. 


54  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

But  soon  England,  Scotland,  Ireland,  France,  Germany, 
Spain,  and  Italy  all  knew  and  dreaded  the  terrible  North- 
men. Their  coasts  were  dotted  with  ruins,  the  bones  of  the 
dead  lay  bleaching  on  a  thousand  battlefields,  and  a  new 
petition  was  added  to  men's  prayers,  "  From  the  fury  of  the 
Northmen,  good  Lord  deliver  us." 


CHAPTER  XII 

THE  NORTHMEN  IN  FRANCE  AND 
ENGLAND 

The  Northmen  as  Settlers  * 

Ax  the  beginning  of  their  raids  the  Northmen  only  came  to 
plunder,  and  made  no  attempt  to  settle  in  the  lands  they 
attacked.  But  as  time  went  on  they  came  not  only  to 
plunder  but  to  settle.  And  wherever  they  settled  a  change 
came  over  them.  They  were  so  adaptable  that  they  lost 
their  individuality  and  became  merged  in  the  native  popula- 
tion. They  settled  in  England  and  became  Englishmen, 
they  settled  in  France  and  became  Frenchmen.  Later, 
these  Norman-French  conquered  England  and  again,  in 
time,  became  Englishmen. 

But  before  they  finally  settled  there  the  attacks  of  the 
Northmen  on  France  were  both  many  and  cruel.  It  was 
not  the  coasts  only  that  they  left  desolate,  for  in  their  narrow 
vessels  they  sailed  up  the  rivers,  and  towns  and  villages  far 
inland  were  laid  in  ruins.  Even  Paris  itself  was  threatened 
by  them  more  than  once. 

The  Carolingian  line  was  by  this  time  dying  out  in  feeble- 
ness, and  weak  kings,  unable  to  punish  the  impudent  in- 
vaders, paid  them  gold  to  depart.  The  Northmen  accepted 
*  See  map,  p.  63. 


ROLLOjTHE^NORTHMAN  55 

the  gold,  but  they  always  returned  again,  each  time  in 
greater  and  greater  numbers,  ever  more  greedy,  more  bold, 
and  more  cruel  than  before.  With  sword  and  firebrand  they 
laid  waste  the  land  until  there  were  whole  districts  in  the 
most  fertile  parts  of  France  where  it  was  said  a  man  might 
wander  for  long  days  without  seeing  the  smoke  of  a  chimney 
or  hearing  the  bark  of  a  dog. 

"  The  heathen,  like  wolves  in  the  night,  seize  upon  the 
flocks  of  Christ,"  wails  a  writer  of  the  time.  "  Churches  are 
burned,  women  are  led  away  captive,  the  people  are  slain. 
Everywhere  there  is  mourning.  From  all  sides  cries  and 
lamentations  assail  the  ears  of  the  king  who,  by  his  indolence, 
leaves  his  Christian  folk  to  perish." 

Rollo  settles  in  the  North  of  France 

After  a  time,  some  of  the  Northmen,  under  their  leader, 
Rollo,  took  possession  of  a  part  of  France  and  settled  there. 
And  from  this  new  base  they  launched  even  fiercer  attacks 
on  the  rest  of  the  country.     At  length,  in  the  time  of  Charles  898- 
the  Simple,  the  French  saw  that  to  buy  the  Northmen  off  922 
was  worse  than  useless,  and  to  expel  them  now  that  they 
were  firmly  rooted  impossible.     The  only  thing  to  do  was  to 
change  lawless  freebooters  into  law-abiding  citizens. 

Charles,  therefore,  sent  messengers  to  the  rough,  old  sea-  911 
king,  offering  him  the  undisputed  possession  of  all  that 
north-west  portion  of  France  in  which  he  and  his  warriors 
had  already  settled.  In  return  for  this,  he  was  to  become 
a  Christian,  be  baptized,  and  own  himself  vassal  of  the  king. 
Rollo  was  not  unwilling  to  listen  to  the  king's  proposal,  but 
he  was  not  content  with  the  land  offered  to  him. 

"  The  land  is  desolate  and  barren,"  he  said,  "  there  is  not 
there  the  wherewithal  to  live."  So  he  demanded  more 
land.  Thereupon  the  king  offered  him  Flanders.  For  he 
had  a  grudge  against  the  count  of  Flanders.  But  Rollo 
would  have  none  of  it. 


56  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

"It  is  nothing  but  a  waste  of  bog  and  marsh,"  he  said, 
and  he  demanded  Brittany. 

Now  the  part  of  France  called  Brittany  had  never  really 
been  in  the  possession  of  the  kings  of  France.  So  all  Charles 
could  give  Rollo  was  the  right  to  conquer  it,  if  he  could.  And 
this  he  readily  gave. 

Matters  being  thus  settled,  Rollo  had  next  to  perform  his 
part  of  the  compact,  and  do  homage  as  a  vassal.  Upon  the 
appointed  day  the  king  seated  himself  upon  his  throne  with 
his  priests  and  courtiers  about  him,  and  to  him  came  the 
rough  old  Northman  and  his  warriors.  The  ceremony 
began,  but  when  Rollo  was  told  that  he  must  kneel  before  the 
king  and  kiss  his  feet  he  started  back  in  wrath. 

"  No,  by  Heaven  !  "  he  cried.  "  I  will  kiss  no  man's 
feet  !  " 

"  It  must  be,"  replied  the  priests,  "in  no  other  way  can 
you  hold  your  fief." 

"  Then  let  one  of  my  followers  do  it  for  me,"  replied  the 
proud  sea-king. 

And  as  nothing  would  move  Rollo,  Charles  had  to  be 
content  with  that.  So  one  of  Rollo's  followers  was  bidden 
to  perform  the  act  of  homage  for  his  master.  But  he  had 
as  little  liking  as  Rollo  for  what  seemed  to  him  a  piece  of 
degrading  foolery.  He  had  never  bent  his  knee  to  any  man, 
and  he  did  not  mean  to  do  it  now.  Striding,  therefore,  up  to 
the  throne,  without  even  bending,  he  seized  the  king's  foot 
and  raised  it  to  his  mouth.  So  rough  and  sudden  was  his 
action  that  Charles  fell  backwards  to  the  ground.  And  thus, 
amid  the  loud  laughter  not  only  of  the  rude  Northmen 
but  of  the  Prankish  courtiers  also,  the  strange  ceremony  of 
homage  ended. 

After  this  Rollo  was  duly  baptized,  and  received  the 
Christian  name  of  Robert,  and  many  of  his  warriors  followed 
his  example  and  were  baptized  also.  Their  conversion  was 
sudden.  But  this  was  nothing  to  the  Northmen.  For  it  was 


ROBERT,  DUKE  OF  NORMANDY  57 

said  many  of  them  made  an  annual  practice  of  it,  merely  for 
the  sake  of  the  white  linen  robe  which  they  received  on  the 
occasion. 

The  land  which  was  thus  given  to  Rollo  was  already  known 
as  Northmannie.  It  soon  became  Normandy,  and  its 
people  Normans.  Very  quickly  they  forgot  their  heathen 
religion  and  their  northern  speech  and  northern  home. 
Normandy,  strange  to  say,  became  the  best  governed  part 
of  France,  and  the  exploits  of  Rollo  the  Ganger,  the  de- 
vastator of  France,  the  pillager  of  monasteries,  the  slayer  of 
women  and  children,  were  almost  forgotten  in  the  fame  of 
Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy,  the  builder  of  churches,  and 
framer  of  righteous  laws. 

Outwardly,  wherever  the  Northmen  settled  they  seemed 
to  disappear  and  be  merged  in  the  native  population.  In 
reality  they  imbued  these  populations  with  something  of 
their  own  spirit.  They  were  filled  with  a  great  curiosity, 
they  had  a  genius  for  order  and  government,  they  were 
fearless,  energetic,  and  eager,  always  ready  to  adventure 
and  to  do.  Civilized,  they  retained  much  of  the  old  vigour 
which  as  barbarian  heathen  had  made  them  such  deadly 
and  pitiless  foes.  Christianized,  they  became  the  passionate 
champions  of  the  Catholic  Church.  And  the  descendants  of 
those  Vikings  who  had  refused  to  bend  the  knee  to  any  man, 
and  laughed  aloud  at  the  discomfiture  of  their  over-lord, 
became  the  great  upholders  of  the  feudal  system,  the  im- 
passioned exponents  of  the  orders  of  knighthood  and  chivalry. 

The  Northmen  in  England 

England  suffered  from  the  Northmen  even  as  did  France.  871- 
Here,  however,  they  were  met  and  checked  by  a  skilful  9l 
soldier  and  statesman,  Alfred  the  Great.     Yet  even  he,  with 
all  his  courage  and  perseverance,  could  not  altogether  loosen 
the  grip  of  the  Northmen  upon  the  island.     At  length  he, 
too,  like  the  king  of  France,  was  obliged  to  buy  peace  by 


58  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

yielding  part  of  his  kingdom  to  the  freebooters.  And,  by  the 
878  Peace  of  Wedmore,  Alfred  assigned  to  the  Danes  all  the 
northern  half  of  England.  The  conditions  of  this  treaty 
were  similar  to  those  upon  which  Rollo  acquired  Normandy. 
Guthrun  the  Dane  was  baptized,  receiving  the  name  of 
Athelstane  and  owning  Alfred  as  overlord. 

But  with  the  Peace  of  Wedmore  the'  struggle  in  England 
did  not  cease.  It  was  only  abated.  During  the  rest  of 
Alfred's  life  and  for  more  than  a  century  after  his  death  it 
continued,  until  in  1016  Knut  the  Dane  became  king  of  all 
England.  This  Northman  domination  lasted  until  1042, 
ending  only  fourteen  years  before  the  conquest  of  England 
by  William  the  Norman. 


CHAPTER  XIII 
THE  BEGINNING  OF  RUSSIA 

THE  conquest  of  England  by  the  Northmen  and  their  settle- 
ment in  France,  out  of  which  arose  the  second  conquest  of 
England,  are  the  most  important  results  of  the  "  Northman 
Fury  "  for  western  Europe.  In  eastern  Europe  the  most 
important  result  was  the  founding  of  Russia.* 

About  the  middle  of  the  ninth  century  some  Northmen, 
Swedes  in  all  probability,  sailed  east,  just  as  their  brethren 
sailed  west  and  south,  upon  a  marauding  expedition.  They 
made  a  settlement  on  the  shores  of  the  Gulf  of  Finland,  and 
laid  the  Slavonic  tribes  along  the  coast  under  tribute.  After 
a  time,  however,  the  Slavs  succeeded  in  driving  out  these 
invaders.  But  having  got  rid  of  them  the  Slavs  fell  to 
quarrelling  among  themselves.  '  There  was  no  more 
justice  among  them/'  says  an  old  chronicle.  "  Family  dis- 

*  See  map,  p.  63. 


THE  FOUNDING  OF  RUSSIA  59 

puted  with  family,  so  that  they  fell  to  war."  At  length  the 
turmoil  and  bloodshed  became  so  great  that  some  among 
them  were  fain  to  confess  that  the  domination  of  the  North- 
men was  more  endurable  than  the  misrule  of  their  own 
princes. 

"  Let  us  seek  a  prince,"  they  said,  "  who  will  judge  us 
according  to  the  right."  Therefore  they  sent  messengers  to 
the  Northmen,  begging  them  to  return.  "  Our  land  is 
large  and  fertile,"  they  said,  "but  it  is  filled  with  discord  and 
clamour.  Come,  then,  and  rule  over  us." 

Rurick  settles  in  Russia 

In  answer  to  this  petition  the  Viking  Rurick,  with  his  two  862 
brothers,  came  to  settle  in  what  is  now  Russia.  These 
Northmen  were  often  called  Varangians  or  Varingars.  No 
one  is  sure  how  they  got  this  name,  but  it  is  believed  to  be 
Arabian  in  origin.  The  Arabians,  at  least,  called  all  the 
northern  peoples  Varangians,  whether  they  invented  the 
name  or  not.  But  the  people  who  lived  in  Finland  called 
them  the  Rousses,  and  soon  the  Slav  subjects  of  Rurick 
came  to  be  called  Russians  and  their  country  Russia. 
Rous  in  Finnish  to-day  means  a  Swede.  So  it  seems  prob- 
able that  the  name  of  the  greatest  Slavonic  people  is  of 
Finnish,  and  not  of  Slavonic  origin. 

Rurick  made  his  capital  at  Novgorod,  and  two  years 
after  his  settlement  there  his  brothers  died,  and  he  became 
sole  ruler  of  the  province.  We  know  very  little  of  his  govern- 
ment or  whether  the  people  lived  to  regret  having  called  in  a 
foreigner  to  rule  over  them.  But  it  is  said  that  after  a  time 
two  Viking  warriors,  one  named  Askold  and  one  named 
Dir,  became  discontented  with  his  rule.  So,  taking  several 
companions  with  them,  they  left  Novgorod,  and  set  out  to 
seek  their  fortunes  at  Constantinople.  On  their  way  they 
came  upon  a  castle  on  the  banks  of  the  Dnieper,  with  a  small 
town  round  it. 


60  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

'  Whose  castle  is  this  ?  "  they  asked  of  the  inhabitants. 

"  It  was  built  by  three  brothers/'  replied  they,  "  but  they 
are  long  since  dead.  We  are  their  descendants,  and  pay 
tribute  to  the  Khazars." 

Hearing  that,  Askold  and  Dir  took  possession  of  the  town, 
which  was  called  Kief.  They  were  soon  joined  by  other 
Northmen,  and  thus  a  second  Viking  settlement  was  made  in 
Russia. 

This  second  settlement  soon  increased,  and  then,  with  true 
Viking  audacity  and  love  of  adventure,  they  made  up  their 
minds  to  attack  Constantinople.  Dwelling  far  inland 
although  they  now  were,  these  Northmen  had  not  forgotten 
their  skill  as  sailors.  Soon  two  hundred  dragon-headed 
boats  went  sailing  down  the  Dnieper  and  out  into  the  Black 
Sea,  and  ere  long  the  terrified  inhabitants  of  Constantinople 
865  saw,  for  the  first  time,  the  gay  sails  and  long  narrow  boats 
of  the  dreaded  Northmen. 

The  Greeks  were  paralysed  with  fear.  Nothing  but  a 
miracle,  it  seemed,  could  save  them  from  destruction.  The 
miracle  happened,  for  a  sudden  storm  arose  which  shattered 
the  Viking  ships,  only  a  miserable  remainder  of  which,  like 
wounded  birds,  crept  slowly  back  to  Kief. 

Prince  Igor  and  Oleg 

For  some  time  the  two  Northman  settlements  in  Russia 
remained  separate  from  each  other.  But  after  ruling  for 

879  fifteen  years  in  the  northern  settlement  Rurick  died.    His  son, 
Igor,  was  only  a  boy,  so  Rurick  left  his  kinsman  Oleg  as  regent. 

Far  more  than  Rurick,  Oleg  was  filled  with  the  desire  of 
conquest,  and  he  resolved  to  bring  both  the  northern  and 
southern  settlements  under  one  rule.  He  knew,  however, 
that  Askold  and  Dir  were  not  likely  to  give  up  their  kingship 
without  a  struggle,  and  he  had  recourse,  therefore,  to 
treachery. 

880  With  a  great  fleet  of  boats  he  sailed  down  the  Dnieper. 


OLEG'S  CONQUESTS  61 

Then  as  they  neared  Kief,  leaving  his  soldiers  behind  him, 
he  went  on  with  the  young  Prince  Igor,  and  a  few  soldiers 
only,  hidden  in  the  bottom  of  his  boat.  Arrived  at  Kief, 
he  sent  messengers  to  Askold  and  Dir,  saying  that  Northman 
merchants  passing  on  their  way  to  Constantinople  desired  to 
greet  them  in  the  name  of  the  Prince  of  Novgorod. 

Askold  and  Dir,  suspecting  no  treachery,  at  once  hurried  to 
the  river  bank,  only  to  find  themselves  surrounded  by  Viking 
warriors,  and  led  captive  before  Oleg. 

"  You  are  no  princes,"  he  said  to  them,  haughtily.  "  You 
are  not  even  of  noble  birth.  As  for  me,  I  am  a  prince." 

Then,  taking  Igor  by  the  hand,  he  led  him  forward. 
"  Behold  the  son  of  Rurick  !  "  he  cried. 

It  was  the  signal  agreed  upon,  and  at  the  words  the 
Vikings  fell  upon  Askold  and  Dir  and  slew  them.  Then,  his 
hands  still  red  with  blood,  Oleg  marched  in  triumph  into 
Kief.  Everything  that  he  saw  there  delighted  the  old 
warrior.  It  seemed  to  him,  with  the  Dnieper  flowing  by,  a 
splendid  point  from  which  to  lead  his  warriors  forth  to 
conquest,  and  he  resolved  to  make  his  capital  there.  "  This 
town  shall  be  the  mother  of  all  Russian  towns  !  "  he  cried. 

Such  is  the  more  or  less  legendary  story  of  the  founding 
of  Russia  by  the  Vikings,  and  for  many  a  long  day  the  rulers 
traced  their  descent  to  the  sea-king  Rurick. 

Meanwhile,  more  than  twenty  years  passed  during  which 
Oleg  extended  his  conquests  all  around,  and  added  province 
after  province  to  his  kingdom.  But  he  kept  peace  with  the 
Eastern  Empire,  and  a  regular  trade  route  was  established 
from  the  shores  of  the  Baltic  to  the  Golden  Horn.  Along  this 
route  there  came  many  a  peaceful  merchant,  bringing  furs 
from  the  snowy  north,  and  carrying  back  with  him  in 
exchange  the  corn  and  wine  of  the  south.  Thus  numbers  of 
Russians  came  to  know  of  Myklegaard  or  the  Great  City,  as 
they  called  Constantinople.  To  these  rude,  northern  giants 
the  riches  and  luxury  they  saw  there  were  a  constant  wonder 


62  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

and  amaze,  and  they  carried  home  with  them  strange  tales 
of  its  marvels. 

904  So  at  length,  either  driven  on  by  his  peoples'  envy  of  the 
riches  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  or  desirous  of  rinding  a  foeman 
worthy  of  his  steel,  Oleg  decided  to  attack  Constantinople,  and 
gathering  a  great  host  of  warriors,  he  set  out.  For  many  a 
mile  the  River  Dnieper  was  covered  with  boats,  two  thousand 
in  all,  it  is  said,  while  vast  squadrons  of  horsemen  accom- 
panied them  along  the  banks.  Seeing  them  come  in  such 
force  the  Greeks  fled  within  their  city,  put  a  chain  across  the 
harbour,  and  left  the  wild  Northmen  to  plunder  and  burn 
at  will  in  all  the  country  around.  The  desolation  they 
made  was  truly  terrible,  for  in  becoming  Russian  the  North- 
men had  lost  none  of  their  Viking  fury. 

But  Oleg  was  bent  on  taking  the  city  itself.  So  he  ordered 
his  soldiers  to  make  wheels,  and  placing  his  boats  upon  them, 
he  brought  them  overland  right  up  to  the  walls  of  Constanti- 
nople. When  the  Greeks  saw  this  strange  sight  their  last 
vestige  of  courage  gave  way,  and  sending  messengers  to  the 
Russians,  they  begged  for  peace.  "  Spare  our  city,"  they 
said,  "  and  we  will  give  you  all  the  tribute  you  demand." 

To  this  Oleg  agreed,  and  having  received  an  immense 
ransom,  he  made  a  treaty  of  peace  with  the  emperor.  As 
the  emperor  swore  to  keep  the  peace  he  kissed  the  Cross, 
but  Oleg  swore  by  his  sword,  for  he  was  a  heathen,  as  most 
of  his  people  still  were.  Then,  having  hung  his  sword  on 
the  gates  of  Constantinople  as  a  sign  of  his  victory,  he 
returned  home,  richly  laden  with  booty. 

But  peace  between  the  Empire  and  Russia  did  not  last. 
For  Constantinople  had  proved  a  rich  and  easy  prey,  and 
four 'times  at  least  in  less  than  two  hundred  years  the  Rus- 
sians appeared  before  its  walls,  and  forced  the  emperor  to 
buy  them  off. 

With  all  their  growing  power  the  Russian  rulers  did  not 
take  the  regal  title,  but  called  themselves  Grand  Dukes.  In 


64  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

980-  980  Vladimir  I  became  Grand  Duke.  He  was  a  fratricide, 
5  a  heathen,  and  an  evil  liver.  But  he  was  a  great  soldier  and 
a  wise  statesman.  He  desired,  above  all  things  to  make  his 
country  great,  and  he  believed  that  an  alliance  with  the 
Empire  would  serve  his  purpose  better  than  war.  So  he 
asked  the  emperors,  Basil  II  and  Const  ant  ine  VII,  to  give  him 
the  hand  of  their  sister  Anne  in  marriage.  But  the  emperors 
refused  to  give  their  sister  in  marriage  to  a  heathen. 

"  Be  baptized,"  they  said,  "  and  you  shall  marry  our 
sister."  Vladimir  immediately  promised  to  do  as  they 
wished,  whereat  the  emperors  rejoiced.  But  the  Princess 
Anne  wept  bitter  tears. 

"  You  send  me  to  slavery  among  a  heathen  people  !  " 
she  cried.  "  It  is  worse  than  death." 

"  Not  so,  sister,"  replied  the  emperors,  "  it  is  by  thee  that 
God  will  lead  the  Russian  nation  to  penitence,  and  thou 
wilt  save  the  Empire  from  a  cruel  war." 

988  So  Vladimir  was  baptized,  and  the  marriage  between  him 
and  the  Grecian  princess  was  celebrated  with  great  rejoicings 
and  splendour.  Then  Vladimir  caused  every  idol  in  Kief  to 
be  destroyed  and  cast  into  the  river,  and  commanded  all 
his  people  on  pain  of  his  displeasure  to  be  baptized  at  once. 
Many  obeyed  him.  "  For,"  said  they,  "  the  religion  must 
be  good,  or  our  prince  would  not  have  accepted  it." 

The  Greek  Church 

Thus  was  Christianity  introduced  into  Russia.  For 
although  many  years  before  priests  had  come  from  Con- 
stantinople to  teach  the  people  about  the  true  God,  only  few 
had  listened  to  them.  Thus,  too,  it  comes  about  that  the 
Russians,  to  this  day,  belong  to  the  Greek  and  not  to  the 
Roman  Church. 

After  this  time  there  was  great  intercourse  between  the 
Empire  and  Russia,  and  the  emperors  formed  a  bodyguard 
gi  Northmen  whom  they  called  the  Varangian  guard. 


THE  VARANGIANS  65 

Varangians  were  bound  to  the  emperor  by  a  special  oath. 
They  lived  in  the  palace  itself,  one  of  their  special  duties  being 
to  guard  the  door  of  the  emperor's  bedchamber.  They 
were  accorded  many  privileges,  and  it  was  considered  a  great 
honour  to  serve  in  the  guard  of  Myklegaard.  Besides  this 
special  guard  many  Northmen  were  to  be  found  among  the 
soldiers  and  sailors  of  the  Empire,  and  many  Vikings  of 
fame  came  to  serve  the  emperor. 

With  Vladimir  the  Viking  period  of  Russian  history  ends, 
and  Russia  begins  to  take  a  place  among  the  Christian 
states  of  Europe.  Besides  the  alliance  with  the  emperor, 
the  Grand  Dukes  of  Russia  soon  made  alliances  with  France 
and  other  of  the  great  states  of  Europe.  But  the  country 
was  constantly  torn  asunder  by  civil  wars.  Rival  princes 
claimed  the  title  and  authority  of  grand  duke,  little  prince- 
doms sprang  up,  and  were  crushed  out  of  existence  again. 
So  instead  of  consolidating  into  a  kingdom  the  country 
remained  merely  a  conglomeration  of  rival  principalities, 
until  in  the  thirteenth  century  the  Mongols,  taking  ad- 
vantage of  this  disunion,  conquered  the  country  and  held  1238- 
it  in  subjection  for  more  than  two  hundred  years. 


CHAPTER  XIV 
THE  NORMAN  KINGDOM  OF  SICILY 


The  Saracens  in  Sicily 

THE  same  restless  energy  which  drove  the  Northmen  out  of 
their  native  country  drove  the  Normans  out  of  Normandy, 
and  led  them  to  seek  adventures  in  other  lands.  And  how, 
even  before  William  of  Normandy  conquered  England,  a 
Norman  adventurer  made  himself  ruler  of  Sicily  is  one  of  the 
most  picturesque  chapters  of  European  history. 

E 


66  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Sicily  at  this  time  was,  in  theory,  still  part  of  the  Eastern 
Empire.  In  reality  it  had  long  been  in  the  possession  of  the 
Saracens,  who  had  also  overrun  the  southern  states  of  the 
Italian  Peninsula.  These  states  were,  at  the  same  time,  full 
of  internal  unrest,  their  petty  chiefs  frequently  quarrelling 
with  each  other.  They  were,  as  well,  a  bone  of  contention 
between  the  Emperor  of  the  West  and  the  Emperor  of  the 
East,  who  each  claimed  them  as  part  of  his  Empire,  while 
the  pope  also  had  his  eye  upon  them. 

We  find  the  Greeks  now  fighting  against  Saracens,  now 
trying  to  subdue  some  native  rebellious  chief.  Now  Greek 
Emperor  and  German  Emperor  join  against  the  Saracens,  or 
again,  Greeks  and  Saracens  join  in  routing  the  Germans.  In 
the  general  turmoil  there  was  room  enough  for  the  adven- 
turous free-lance.  Norman  adventurers  travelled  far  and 
were  always  ready  to  lend  their  swords  to  any  side  which 
would  pay  them,  and  just  as  ready  to  change  sides.  And 
ere,,  long  we  find  them  taking  part  in  the  fray. 

Chief  among  these  Norman  adventurers  were  the  sons  of 
Tancred  of  Hauteville.  They  were  "  of  middling  parentage, 
neither  very  low  nor  very  high."  There  were  twelve 
brothers,  among  whom  William  of  the  Iron  Arm,  Robert 
Guiscard,  or  the  Wily,  Humphrey,  and  Roger  are  the  most 
famous.  There  was  no  scope  for  their  ardent  and  ambitious 
spirits  in  their  native  village,  so  they  set  forth  to  seek  their 
fortune  by  their  swords.  They  "  journeyed  through  divers 
places,  in  military  fashion,  seeking  gain,  and  at  last,  by  God's 
providence,  reached  Apulia,  a  province  of  Italy." 

Robert  Guiscard 

1041  Soon  we  find  Iron  Arm  and  Humphrey,  with  their  followers, 
in  the  service  of  the  Greek  Emperor,  helping  to  rout  the 
Saracens.  But  when  the  fight  was  over,  and  the  spoil  was 
divided,  the  Normans  considered  that  they  did  not  receive 
their  fair  share,  They  complained  loudly,  but  instead  of 


THE  NORMANS  IN  SICILY  67 

listening  to  their  demands,  the  Greek  general  insulted  their 
leader.  Thereupon  the  proud  adventurers  determined  to 
avenge  the  insult.  And  passing  over  to  the  mainland,  they 
roused  the  Normans  who  had  already  settled  there.  In 
many  battles  they  defeated  the  Greeks,  and  at  length  put 
an  end  to  their  rule.  They  won  Pope  Nicholas  II  to 
their  cause,  and  at  his  hands  Robert  Guiscard  received  the  1060 
title  of  duke.  Thus  a  Norman  adventurer  •"  of  middling 
parentage  "  became  "  Robert,  by  the  grace  of  God  and  of 
St.  Peter,  Duke  of  Apulia  and  of  Calabria,  and  future  Duke 
of  Sicily  by  their  aid." 

It  was  Roger  chiefly  who  carried  out  the  conquest  of  Sicily. 
But  it  was  a  long  and  terrible  struggle.  Many  towns  were 
laid  in  ruins,  and  much  blood  was  shed  before  Norman  rule 
was  established  in  the  island.  In  1072,  indeed,  Robert  gave  his 
brother  Roger  the  title  of  Count  of  Sicily,  but  it  was  nearly 
twenty  years  later  before  the  last  town  submitted  to  him. 
Long  ere  this  Robert  Guiscard  was  dead,  and  his  son  Roger 
Borsa  ruled  as  duke.  At  the  good  age  of  seventy  Roger 
the  great  count  also  died,  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son,  also 
called  Roger.  This  Roger  made  up  his  mind  to  unite  all 
the  Norman  conquests  in  Sicily  and  Italy  under  one 
rule.  But  to  do  this  he  felt  that  he  must  have  the  title 
of  king. 

At  this  time  two  popes,  Anacletus  II  and  Innocent  II,  1130 
were  struggling  for  the  papal  throne.  Roger  supported 
Anacletus,  and  in  return  received  from  him  the  title  of  king. 
And  on  Christmas  Day,  1130,  he  was  crowned  at  Palermo 
with  great  magnificence.  Thus  Sicily  began  its  long  and 
chequered  career  as  a  kingdom.  Yet  although  Roger  was 
really  the  first  Norman  king  of  Sicily  (his  father  having 
merely  held  the  title  of  count),  he  is  generally  known  as 
Roger  II. 

Roger  had  attained  his  ambition,  but  it  cost  him  ten  years 
of  war.  All  Europe  seeined  to  gather  against  him.  The 


68  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Emperor  of  the  East  began  to  fear  the  growing  power  of  these 
upstart  Normans  who  had  wrested  Sicily  from  the  Empire. 
The  German  Emperor  Lothaire,  the  King  of  France,  Louis 
VI,  the  King  of  England,  Henry  I,  and  Pope  Innocent  II, 
all,  for  one  reason  or  another,  were  against  him,  besides 
which  there  were  rebels  in  Italy  itself. 

For  a  time  Roger  suffered  many  defeats.     But  in  the  end 

he  conquered,  and  he  even  induced  Pope  Innocent,  after  the 

1139  death  of  Anacletus,  to  confirm  him  in  his  title  of  king.     But- 

the  dynasty  he  founded  did  not  last  long,  and  with  the  death 

of  Tancred  in  1194  Norman  rule  in  Sicily  came  to  an  end. 


CHAPTER  XV 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  SCANDINAVIA 
DENMARK  AND  SWEDEN 

WHILE  the  Northmen  were  founding  new  kingdoms  in 
Europe,  the  countries  they  had  left  were  also  taking  shape. 
But  save  for  a  few  remarks  in  the  works  of  ancient  writers, 
nothing  is  known  of  Scandinavia  in  early  days.  There  are 
indeed  many  sagas  or  hero  stories  of  far-off  times.  But 
although  these  are  delightful  reading,  and  give  a  wonderful 
insight  into  the  habits  and  customs  of  the  Northmen,  they 
cannot  be  looked  upon  as  serious  history.  After  the  North- 
men began  to  attack  Europe,  the  chronicles  of  all  the 
countries  which  suffered  from  them  are  full  of  their  dreadful 
doings.  But  there  are  no  Scandinavian  chronicles  of  the 
same  period.  So  we  do  not  know  what  was  happening  in 
the  countries  whence  these  pirates  came. 

The  first  mention  we  have  of  a  king  of  Denmark  is  during 
Charlemagne's  Saxon  wars  (see  Chapter  IX).  Then  more 
than  once  Siegfried,  King  of  Denmark,  sheltered  Wittikind, 


ENGLAND  AND  THE  NORTHMEN 


70  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

the  great  Saxon  hero,  from  the  wrath  of  Charlemagne.  But 
until  the  end  of  the  tenth  century  Denmark  and  the  kings  of 
Denmark  are  of  very  little  account.  Up  to  that  time  it  was 
the  men  who  left  their  country  in  order  to  raid  Europe,  and 
found  new  kingdoms  there,  who  mattered,  and  not  the 
kings  and  country  they  left  behind.  So  these  countries 
come  late  into  the  story  of  Europe.  From  the  time  anything 
is  known  of  them,  they  were  small,  and  they  were  constantly 
being  divided  by  civil  wars.  They  seemed  too  insignificant 
to  have  any  influence  on  the  growth  of  Europe.  Yet  in  the 
building  up  of  France,  England,  and  Russia  the  people  of 
i  these  countries  played  a  great  part. 

Indeed,  all  Europe  was  their  battle-field,  and  where  they 

came  they  conquered,  none  daring  to  attack  them  in  their 

northern  strongholds.     Only  Germany  cast  a  covetous  eye 

on  the  northern  peninsula,  and  Henry  the  Fowler  crossed 

919-  the  Eider,  and  reduced  the  south  of  Denmark  to  a  mere 

QOG 

province  of  the  Empire. 

The  Germans  would  have  pushed  their  conquests  further 
still  had  not  the  Viking  queen  Thyra  roused  the  people, 
and  in  three  years  caused  a  wall  to  be  built  against  the  in- 
vader. Part  of  this  wall  may  still  be  seen,  and  the  queen 
who  caused  it  to  be  built  is  known  to  this  day  as  Thyra 
Danebod  or  Dane's  Defence.  She  died  not  long  after  the 
great  work  was  finished,  and  over  her  grave  the  king  raised 
a  huge  mound  and  placed  a  stone  upon  it  with  the  descrip- 
tion, "  Gorm  the  King  raised  this  stone  to  the  memory  of 
Thyra,  his  wife.  Denmark's  Defence." 

Knut  the  Great 

In  the  reign  of  Sweyn  Forkbeard,  the  kings  of  Denmark 
begin  to  be  of  some  European  importance.  Forkbeard 
began  the  conquest  of  England  and  of  Norway,  and  his  son, 

Knut  the  Great,  finished  his  work,  and  when  he  died  was 
1016-       ,          , 
1035    ruler  of  a  vast  northern  empire. 


KNUT,  KING  OF  ENGLAND  71 

When  Knut  first  came  to  England  he  was  a  blood-thirsty 
pirate,  burning  and  slaying  with  ruthless  cruelty.  But  as 
with  his  countryman  Rollo,  with  power  came  judgment,  and 
the  freebooter  was  changed  into  a  righteous  ruler,  the  slum- 
bering fires  of  his  barbarian  soul  only  bursting  into  flames 
once  and  again. 

Knut  was  a  power  in  Europe.     The  greatest  rulers  of  the 
time,  the  emperor  Conrad   II  and  the  pope,  he  treated  as  1024- 
equals,  and  neither  as  spiritual  nor  temporal  superiors,  and 
he  induced  the  emperor  to  restore  the  land  between  the  1025 
Eider  and  the  Danework  which  had  been  conquered  by 
Henry  the  Fowler.     Thus  the  frontiers  between  Denmark 
and  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  were  restored  as  they  had  been 
in  the  time  of  Charlemagne,  and  as  they  were  to  be  for  1064 
more  than  eight  hundred  years.     Then  at  length  they  were  18e 
swept  away  by  Prussian  aggression. 

But  the  empire  of  Knut,  like  the  empire  of  Charlemagne, 
was  held  together  merely  by  the  will  of  one  man.  It  could 
not  endure,  and  when  Knut  died  his  empire  fell  almost 
immediately  to  pieces,  and  England,  Denmark,  Norway,  and 
Sweden  became  separate  kingdoms. 

After  Knut  the  reigns  of  the  kings  of  Denmark  are  full  of 
civil  wars.  In  these  wars  the  German  emperors  constantly 
took  part,  for  they  were  anxious  to  make  Denmark  part  of 
the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  They  had  good  hope  of  suc- 
ceeding, for  Denmark  was  more  than  once  divided  between 
rival  aspirants  to  the  throne,  and  the  many  factions  left 
the  country  open  to  the  invader.  But  under  Valdamar  the 
Great,  Denmark  was  again  united,  and  became  the  most 
powerful  of  all  northern  states. 

Valdamar  and  Absalon 

In  all  his  undertakings  Valdamar  was  aided  by  the  arch- 
bishop of  Lund,  Axel  or  Absalon.  He  was  equally  great  as  a 
soldier,  a  statesman,  and  a  priest.  When  Valdamar  came 


72  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

to  the  throne  Denmark  was  wasted  by  civil  war,  and  made 
desolate  by  the  attacks  of  the  Wends  or  Slavs,  who  lived 
round  the  shores  of  the  Baltic.  They  were  a  scourge  and 
terror  to  Scandinavia  just  as  the  Northmen  had  been  to  the 
rest  of  Europe  two  centuries  earlier.  Absalon  was  deter- 
mined to  clear  the  country  of  these  pirates,  and  for  ten  years 
he  fought  them.  After  long  struggle  he  seized  their  chief 
fortress,  hewed  the  four-headed  wooden  god  into  firewood, 
and  burned  his  temple.  This  struck  such  terror  into  the 
hearts  of  the  pirates  that  the  next  fortress  which  Absalon 
attacked  yielded  without  a  blow.  He  and  a  few  companions 
marched  unscathed  through  mile-long  ranks  of  Wendish 
warriors  drawn  up  to  receive  them,  cut  the  hideous  seven- 
headed  idol  in  pieces,  and  baptized  the  whole  population 
at  the  point  of  the  sword. 

1168  Absalon  also  built  a  fortress  of  defence  against  the  attacks 
of  the  Wends.  This  fortress  was  called  Kaupmanna  Havn, 
or  Merchant's  Haven.  To-day  it  is  Copenhagen,  the  capital 
of  Denmark,  and  near  the  spot  where  Absalon's  castle 
stood  his  statue  may  now  be  seen. 

When  Valdamar  died  he  had  united  Denmark,  and  ex- 

tended his  sway  over  many  Baltic  lands,  and  had  earned  for 

himself  the  title  of  liberator  of  his  country  and  preserver 

Knut,    of  peace.     His  sons,  Knut  VI  and  Valdamar  II   followed 

1202     m  m's  steps.     They   increased   their   conquests   until  the 

Valda-  Baltic  was  little  more  than  a  Danish  lake,  and  Denmark 


became  important  as  it  had  not  been  since  the  days  of 
1241  Knut  the  Great.  Even  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  paid  toll 
to  Valdamar  II,  and  his  rule  extended  as  far  south  as  Liibeck 
and  Hamburg.  But  at  the  height  of  his  greatness  a  sudden 
change  came  over  his  fortunes  and  those  of  his  kingdom. 

In  1223  he  was  treacherously  seized  by  one  of  his  German 
vassals,  Henry  of  Schwerin,  and  carried  away  prisoner  to 
the  castle  of  Dannenberg  in  Germany.  Here  for  two  and 
a  half  years,  in  spite  of  all  efforts  towards  his  release,  he 


THE  END  OF  THE  NORTHERN  EMPIRE       73 

pined,  while  his  German  vassals,  following  Count  Henry's 
example,  rose  in  rebellion.  He  only  won  his  release  at  length 
by  paying  a  huge  ransom,  and  giving  up  his  Baltic  conquests, 
and  the  land  lying  between  the  Eider  and  the  Elbe. 

As  soon  as  he  was  free  Valdamar  tried  to  retrieve  his  1227 
fortunes  by  the  sword,  but  in  the  battle  of  Bornhoved  he 
was  utterly  defeated.     This  might  be  looked  upon  as  one 
of  the  decisive  battles  of  history,  for  it  put  an  end  to  Danish 
rule  in  the  Baltic  and  Danish  hopes  of  a  northern  empire. 

After  his  defeat,  with  unusual  wisdom,  Valdamar  thought 
no  more  of  conquest  but  turned  his  attention  to  the  better- 
ment of  the  land  which  still  remained  to  him.  Thus  in  the 
last  years  of  his  reign  he  introduced  many  reforms  and 
codified  the  Danish  laws. 

For  a  century  after  the  death  of  Valdamar  II  Denmark  was 
torn  asunder  by  civil  war,  and  half  the  kings  died  by  violence 
"  At  the  death  of  Valdamar  II,"  says  an  old  chronicle,  "  the 
crown  slipped  from  off  the  head  of  the  Danes.  Hence- 
forward they  became  the  laughing-stock  of  all  their  neigh- 
bours through  civil  wars  and  mutual  fury,  and  the  lands 
which  they  had  honourably  won  by  the  sword  were  not  only 
lost  but  caused  great  mischief  to  the  realm  and  wasted  it." 

Union  of  Calmar,  1397 

When  Valdamar  IV  came  to  the  throne  Denmark  had  1340- 
sunk  to  the  lowest  point  in  its  history.  But  under  him  it  1375 
rose  again  for  a  short  time  to  something  nearer  its  past 
greatness.  When  he  died  he  had  recovered  much  of  the 
territory  which  had  been  lost  during  the  previous  reigns.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Olaf ,  whose  mother  Margaret 
acted  as  regent.  She  was  then  but  twenty-two,  but  she  is 
one  of  the  greatest  figures  in  Scandinavian  history.  When 
in  1387  Olaf  died,  she  adopted  her  grand-nephew  Eric. 
Through  her  influence  Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden  were 
united  under  him  by  the  Union  of  Calmar.  1397 


74  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Sweden 

993?-  In  Sweden  serious  history  begins  with  the  reign  of  Olaf 
1021  Skettkonung  the  Lap-King.  He  received  this  name,  it  is 
said,  because  he  was  still  a  baby  sitting  in  his  mother's 
lap  when  his  subjects  came  to  do  homage  to  him.  He 
made  an  alliance  with  Knut  the  Great,  and  it  may  be  that 
he  joined  Knut's  army  when  first  he  invaded  England. 

Olaf  introduced  Christianity  into  Sweden.  But  for  a  long 
time  many  of  the  people  refused  to  accept  the  new  religion, 
and  nearly  eighty  years  later  we  find  a  Christian  king,  Inge, 
being  driven  from  his  throne,  because  he  would  not  sacrifice 
to  heathen  gods.  "  At  a  thing  (parliament)  which  the  Swedes 
held  with  Inge,"  so  runs  an  old  saga,  "  they  offered  him  two 
things  :  either  to  follow  the  old  faith  or  give  up  the  king- 
ship. Inge  answered  and  said,  '  I  cannot  reject  the  faith 
that  is  truest/  Whereupon  the  Swedes  raised  a  cry,  pelted 
him  with  stones,  and  drove  him  forth." 

The  king's  brother-in-law  Blotsweyne,  so  called  from  biota, 
a  sacrifice,  then  usurped  the  throne,  and  once  more  set  up 
the  old  heathen  religion.  But  in  less  than  three  years  Inge 
returned,  slew  Blotsweyne,  and  again  took  possession 
of  the  kingdom.  With  Blotsweyne's  death  the  power  of 
heathendom  in  Sweden  was  broken,  although  the  worship 
of  idols  did  not  readily  die,  and  in  remote  districts  it  was 
preserved  still  for  many  years.  Indeed,  Sweden  was  prob- 
1150-  ably  not  really  Christianized  until  the  reign  of  St.  Eric. 
He  carried  his  religious  zeal  as  far  as  Finland,  conquering 
a  great  part  of  that  country,  which  remained  a  dependency 
of  Sweden  for  six  and  a  half  centuries. 

During  the  following  hundred  years  Sweden  was  cursed 
with  tyrannical  and  incapable  kings.  Many  of  them  came 
to  the  throne  as  children,  and  regents  ruled — some  well  but 
mostly  ill.  There  were  incessant  wars,  both  within  the 
country  and  without,  and  these  helped  to  make  the  nobles 


THE  UNION  OF  CALMAR  75 

powerful  and  arrogant.  They  oppressed  the  people  and 
coerced  the  king,  who  was  often  little  more  than  their  hench- 
man. 

In  1319  Magnus  II  was  elected  king.  He  was  but  three 
years  old,  and  when  his  grandfather  Hakon  V  of  Norway  died 
in  the  same  year  he  became  king  of  Norway  also.  But  the 
union  was  one  in  name  only.  When  he  came  of  age  Magnus 
utterly  neglected  Norway,  and  in  1355  the  Norwegians  chose 
his  son  Hakon  as  king.  His  wife  was  Margaret,  daughter 
of  King  Valdamar  of  Denmark. 

The  reign  of  Magnus  was  full  of  disaster.  The  Black  1350 
Death  swept  Scandinavia,  carrying  off  more  than  a  third 
of  the  population.  Magnus  was  involved  in  debt  and 
disastrous  wars,  and  at  length  some  nobles  who  had  been 
banished  by  Magnus  offered  the  throne  to  his  brother-in- 
law  Albert  of  Mecklinburg.  1363 

Then  civil  war  raged.     Albert  filled  the  land  with  German 
favourites,  who  oppressed  the  people,  and  the  people  rose 
against  them.     German  pirates  swept  the  Baltic,  and  the 
^  trade  of  Scandinavia  was  ruined. 

By  this  time  King  Hakon  of  Norway  was  dead,  and  his 
widow  Margaret  was  regent  of  both  Norway  and  Denmark. 
To  her  the  Swedes  now  appealed  for  help,  and  in  1389 
Albert  was  defeated  and  taken  prisoner.  But  still  the  war 
continued,  Swedes  and  Germans  fighting  with  bitter  hatred. 
"  In  Sweden  at  this  time,"  says  an  old  chronicle,  "  there  were 
enemies  on  all  sides,  son  against  father  and  brother  against 
brother."  At  length  in  1395  peace  was  made,  and  Albert 
was  released  on  condition  of  paying  an  enormous  ransom. 
Then  in  1397,  by  the  Union  of  Calmar,  Margaret's  grand- 
nephew  Eric  of  Pomerania  was  acknowledged  king  of 
Denmark,  Norway,  and  Sweden. 


76  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  XVI 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  SCANDINAVIA 
NORWAY 

Harold  Haarfager 

NORWAY  appears  in  history  about  the  same  time  as  Denmark 
and  Sweden.  Harold  Haarfager,  or  Harold  of  the  Splendid 
Locks,  conquered  the  petty  chiefs  who  ruled  Norway  and 
872  made  himself  sole  king.  He  extended  his  conquests  far 
beyond  Norway.  Orkney  and  Shetland  became  Norwe- 
gian earldoms,  and  even  the  Isle  of  Man  and  Iceland 
owned  his  sway. 

"  On  a  summer  he  sailed  with  his  host  west-over-sea, 
and  came  first  to  Shetland,  and  there  slew  all  the  Vikings 
who  might  not  flee  before  him.  Then  he  sailed  south  to 
the  Orkneys,  and  cleared  them  utterly  of  Vikings.  And 
thereafter  he  fared  right  away  to  the  South  isles,  and  harried 
there,  and  slew  many  Vikings  who  were  captains  of  bands 
there.  There  had  he  many  battles,  and  ever  gained  the  day. 
Then  he  harried  in  Scotland,  and  had  battles  there.  And 
when  he  came  west  to  Man,  the  folk  thereof  had  already 
heard  what  warfare  King  Harold  had  done  on  the  land  . 
aforetime,  and  all  folk  fled  into  Scotland,  so  that  Man  was  a 
waste  of  men,  and  all  the  good  things  that  might  be  were 
flitted  away.  So  when  King  Harold  and  his  folk  went  a-land 
they  got  no  prey  there  "  (Heimskringla). 

Harold  was  a  fierce  barbarian  fighter,  but  he  had  some 
statesmanship  also.  "  Whensoever  swift  rage  or  anger  fell 
on  him,  he  held  himself  aback  at  first,  and  let  the  wrath 
run  off  him,  and  looked  at  the  matter  unwrathfully."  He 
had  also  what  was  wonderful  in  those  days,  some  respect 
for  his  neighbour's  rights.  "  Harold  was  the  greatest  king 


HAKON  THE  GOOD  77 

in  Norway,  and  he  had  to  do  with  kings  of  the  folk-lands, 
and  broke  them  down  under  him ;  yet  he  knew  what  was 
meet  for  him,  and  not  to  covet  the  realm  of  the  Swede  king, 
and  for  that  reason  the  Swede  kings  let  him  sit  in  peace." 

He  also  laid  a  ban  upon  robbery  in  the  land.  Therefore, 
many  restless  malcontents  left  the  country  rather  than  sub- 
mit to  the  tyranny  of  such  laws.  France,  Great  Britain,  and 
Ireland  suffered  accordingly.  Among  those  who  sailed  in 
quest  of  new  lands  was  Rolf  or  Rollo  Wend-afoot. 

"  Therefore,  at  a  thing  he  gave  out  that  he  made  Rolf 
(who  would  be  ever  a-harrying  in  the  East-lands)  an  outlaw. 
.  .  .  Rolf  Wend-afoot  fared  therefor  west-over-sea  to  the 
South  isles.  Thence  west  he  went  to  Valland,  and  harried 
there,  and  won  therein  a  mighty  earldom,  and  peopled  all 
the  land  with  Northmen,  and  henceforth  has  that  land  been 
called  Normandy." 

In  the  end  Harold  ruined  his  work  of  uniting  Norway  by 
giving  lesser  kingships  to  about  twenty  of  his  sons,  and  each 
of  these  sons  determined  in  his  own  mind  to  be  king  after 
his  father's  death.  So  when  at  the  age  of  seventy-three 
Harold  died,  the  land  was  once  more  torn  by  civil  wars,  the  933 
brothers  slaying  each  other  and  wasting  the  realm  in  the 
contest  for  supremacy. 

Hakon  the  Good 

But  at  length  Hakon  the  Good,  Harold's  youngest  son,  934- 
got  the  better  of  all  the  others,  and  reigned  in  Norway  for  961 
twenty-seven  years.     He  had  been  brought  up  at  the  court 
of  Athelstane,  and  was  therefore  "  a  well  christened  man 
when  he  came  to  Norway." 

"  So  he  was  minded  when  he  was  set  fast  in  the  land,  and 
had  gotten  all  to  him  freely  to  hold,  he  would  then  set  forth 
the  Christian  faith.  And  at  the  beginning  he  wrought  in 
such  wise  that  he  lured  such  as  were  best  beloved  by  him  to 
become  Christians,  and  so  much  did  his  friendship  prevail 


78  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

therein  that  very  many  let  themselves  be  christened,  and 
other  some  left  off  blood-offerings." 

But  when  Hakon  tried  to  force  Christianity  on  the  whole 
people  he  failed.  They  not  only  refused  baptism  but  com- 
pelled the  king  to  take  part  in  their  heathen  sacrifices.  At 
this  Hakon  was  so  incensed  that  he  determined  to  force 
Christianity  upon  the  whole  people  at  the  point  of  the  sword. 
He  was  only  held  back  from  this  by  the  danger  which 
threatened  his  kingdom  through  the  attacks  of  his  nephews, 
who  had  been  disappointed  of  their  heritage. 

Hakon  had  need  of  a  united  people  to  repel  these  attacks, 
so  he  made  peace  with  his  heathen  subjects,  and  they  joined 
their  swords  with  his  in  defence  of  the  realm. 

In  one  of  these  battles  Hakon  was  slain.  As  he  lay 
wounded  he  longed  for  Christian  burial.  *  Yet/'  he  said, 
"  if  I  die  here  amongst  the  heathen,  then  give  me  grave  such 
as  seemeth  good  unto  you."  So  the  first  Christian  king  of 
Norway  was  buried  with  heathen  rites.  "  Such  words  they 
spake  over  his  grave  as  heathen  men  have  custom,  wishing 
him  welfare  to  Valhall." 

Olaf  Tryggvason 

995-  It  was  under  one  of  Hakon's  successors,  Olaf  Tryggvason, 
1000  that  Norway  became  Christian.  In  early  youth  he  was  a 
Viking  as  fierce  and  blood-thirsty  as  any.  "  He  was  a  danger 
to  the  lives  of  the  Gotland  folk,  and  I  hear  he  fought  at 
Sconey.  He  hewed  the  mail  coats  with  the  sword  in  Den- 
mark, and  south  of  Heathby  he  cut  down  the  vulgar  carcases 
of  the  Saxons  for  the  steeds  of  the  witches  (wolves) .  He  gave 
the  blood  of  many  a  Frisian  to  the  night  prowlers.  He 
fed  the  wolves  on  the  bodies  of  the  Bretons  of  Gaul,  and  gave 
the  flesh  of  the  Flemings  to  the  raven.  The  young  king 
waged  war  against  the  English,  and  made  a  slaughter  of 
the  Northumbrians.  He  destroyed  the  Scots  far  and  wide. 
He  held  a  sword  play  in  Man.  The  archer  king  brought 


NORWAY  CHRISTIANIZED  79 

death  to  the  islander  and  to  the  Irish.  He  battled  with  the 
dwellers  in  the  land  of  Wales,  and  cut  down  the  Cumbrian 
folk  "  (Saga  of  Olaf). 

In  994  Olaf  invaded  England  with  Sweyn,  king  of  Den- 
mark, and  while  there  he  became  Christian.  He  promised 
Ethelred  "  that  he  would  never  more  come  to  England 
with  war,"  and  he  kept  his  promise. 

The  year  after  this  visit  to  England  he  suddenly  appeared 
in  Norway,  and  was  received  as  king  with  acclamation. 
Like  Hakon  he  determined  to  make  his  people  Christian. 
With ,  those  immediately  about  him  he  was  successful. 
"  Then  fared  the  king  into  the  north  parts,  and  bade  all  men 
take  christianizing,  but  those  who  gainsaid  him  he  mis- 
handled sorely.  Some  he  slew,  some  he  maimed,  some  he 
drave  away  from  the  land." 

So  through  all  his  kingdom  Olaf  passed,  and  by  persuasion, 
threats,  or  at  the  point  of  the  sword,  he  forced  the  whole 
people  to  accept  the  baptism  of  Christ.  And  when  the 
haughty  Queen  Sigrid,  whom  he  wooed  as  his  wife,  refused 
to  become  a  Christian,  he  struck  her  in  the  face  with  his  glove 
and  left  her  straightway. 

"  This  may  well  be  the  bane  of  thee,"  she  cried,  and  there- 
after Sigrid  the  Haughty  was  King  Olaf's  greatest  foe.     She 
married  King  Sweyn  of  Denmark  and  induced  him  to  join 
with  Olaf  of  Sweden  in  a  war  against  Norway  to  avenge  her  1000 
wrongs. 

The  ships  of  the  allies  far  outnumbered  those  of  Olaf,  but 
he  disdained  to  flee,  and  after  a  desperate  struggle  off 
Stralsund  the  Norwegians  were  overcome.  But  rather  than 
fall  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy  Olaf  leaped  into  the  sea 
and  was  drowned.  His  people,  however,  could  not  believe 
that  he  was  dead.  So  the  legend  grew  up  that  he  would 
return  again,  just  as  the  legend  of  Arthur  grew,  and  later  that 
of  Barbarossa. 


80  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Olaf  Haroldson  or  St.  Olaf 

In  1015  Olaf  Haroldson  made  himself  king  of  Norway  by 
force  of  the  sword ;  but  many  of  the  people  received  him 
gladly,  for  it  seemed  to  them  that  Olaf  Tryggvason  had  come 
again,  and  in  popular  story  many  of  the  exploits  of  Olaf 
Tryggvason  are  ascribed  to  Olaf  Haroldson.  Among  these 
is  the  Christianizing  of  Norway,  and  after  his  death  Olaf 
Haroldson  was  named  St.  Olaf,  and  became  the  patron  saint 
of  Norway.  In  life,  however,  he  was  a  vigorous  statesman 
and  warrior. 

"  It  was  proof  of  his  stern  rule  that  the  wardens  of  the  land 
had  the  heads  of  many  pirates  cut  short  with  keen  weapons. 
.  .  .  They  that  made  armed  trespass  ofttimes  offered  gold 
to  the  stern  king  for  ransom  ;  but  he  refused  it  and  com- 
manded their  heads  to  be  chopped  off  with  the  sword. 
The  blessed  king  maimed  the  race  of  robbers  and  reivers, 
thus  he  cut  short  theft,  he  made  every  chief  lose  hands  and 
feet,  so  he  bettered  the  peace  of  the  land.  Nor  did  treason 
thrive  towards  the  king  "  (Olaf's  dirge). 

Knut  the  Great 

For  ten  years  Olaf  reigned  undisturbed.  Then  in  1025, 
when  Knut  the  Great  had  firmly  established  his  rule  over 
England,  he  sent  messengers  to  Olaf  demanding  that  he 
should  do  homage  to  him  as  overlord. 

"  Then  answered  King  Olaf  :  '  I  have  heard  it  told  in 
ancient  tales  that  Gorm  the  Dane  king  was  deemed  to  be  a 
mighty  enough  king  of  the  people,  and  he  ruled  over  Den- 
mark alone ;  but  this  the  Dane  kings  that  have  been  since 
deem  not  enough.  And  now  it  has  come  to  this,  that  Knut 
rules  over  Denmark  and  over  England,  and,  moreover,  has 
broken  a  mickle  deal  of  Scotland  under  his  sway,  yet  now  he 
layeth  claim  to  my  lawful  heritage  at  my  hands.  He  should 
wot  how  to  have  measure  in  his  grasping  in  the  end  ;  or 
is  he  minded  alone  to  rule  over  all  the  North-lan^s  ?  Or 


OLAF  RESISTS  KNUT  81 

does  he  mean,  he  alone,  to  eat  all  kale  in  England  ?  Yea, 
he  will  have  might  thereto  or  ever  I  bring  him  my  head,  or 
give  him  any  louting  soever.  Now  shall  ye  tell  him  these 
words  of  mine,  that  I  mean  to  ward  Norway  with  point  and 
edge  whiles  my  life  days  last  thereto,  and  not  to  pay  any  man 
scat  for  my  own  kingdom." 

But  Knut  was  minded  to  be  emperor  of  the  north.  He  was 
rich  in  men  and  money,  so  with  gold  and  sword  he  invaded 
Norway.  All  those  to  whom  Olaf's  stern  rule  had  caused 
discontent  were  easily  bribed  to  join  his  foes  against  him, 
and  after  a  short  struggle  he  left  his  kingdom  to  the  spoiler, 
and  fled  to  Russia.  Eighteen  months  later  he  returned  to 
make  a  fight  for  his  crown  once  more  ;  but  at  the  battle  of 
Stiklarstad  he  was  slain.  "  The  Danish  men  had  then  in  1030 
Norway  mickle  mastery,  and  the  folk  of  the  land  were  right 
ill-content  thereat." 

But  on  the  death  of  Knut  five  years  later  the  Norwegians 
made  Olaf's  son  Magnus  king  and  the  connexion  with 
Denmark  ended. 

For  nearly  a  century  after  this  the  land  wras  more  or  less 
peaceful,  then  for  another  century,  1130  to  1240,  there  fol- 
lowed a  period  of  civil  wars,  many  would-be  kings  struggling 
for  the  crown.  In  1240  the  last  of  these  claimants  was  killed, 
and  better  times  began  to  dawn  for  the  country.  Then 
when  Hakon  VI,  son  of  Magnus  of  Sweden,  died,  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Olaf,  and  Margaret  his  widow  became 
regent,  until  all  three  Scandinavian  kingdoms  were  united  by 
the  Union  of  Calmar.  1397 


82  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

CHAPTER  XVII 
THE  FEUDAL  SYSTEM 

WHEN  in  911  the  pirate  king,  Rollo  the  Ganger,  was  trans- 
formed into  Robert,  Duke  of  Normandy  (see  Chapter  XII) 
he  did  homage  to  his  superior,  Charles  the  Simple.  Although, 
as  you  remember,  he  refused  to  kiss  the  king's  feet,  in  all 
probability  he,  or  one  of  his  followers  for  him,  knelt  before 
the  king,  put  his  hands  in  those  of  the  king,  and  vowed  to  be 
his  man.  This  is  the  original  meaning  of  homage,  the  word 
being  derived  from  homme,  the  French  for  man.  We  have 
no  record  of  the  exact  ceremony  performed  by  Rollo.  But  we 
know  that  some  such  ceremony  must  have  taken  place, 
for  the  feudal  system  was  already  in  force  in  France.  By 
this  ceremony  Rollo  was  installed  as  Duke  of  Normandy  ; 
but  the  land  did  not  become  his  in  absolute  possession. 
It  still  belonged,  in  theory  at  least,  to  the  king,  who  be- 
stowed it  on  Rollo  as  a  fief,  and  in  accepting  this  fief  Rollo 
became  the  vassal  or  servant  of  the  king  (vassalis}. 

To  trace  the  rise  of  feudalism,  or  to  explain  all  its  various 
phases  and  modifications  in  various  countries,  would  be 
impossible  in  a  short  space.  Broadly,  feudalism  was  the 
name  given  to  a  peculiar  form  of  government  founded  on  the 
holding  of  land  by  military  service.  It.  was  a  result  of  the 
wild  confusion  into  which  all  the  countries  of  western 
Europe  were  thrown  upon  the  break-up  of  the  Carolingian 
Empire  (see  Chapter  X),  and  was  developed  partly  from  old 
Roman  custom,  partly  from  new  barbarian  custom. 

The  root  idea  was  that  all  the  land  in  a  country  belonged  to 
the  king,  who  held  it  from  God  alone  ;  but  no  one  man,  king 
although  he  might  be,  could  farm  the  land  of  a  whole  country. 
Therefore  he  gave  it  to  whomsoever  he  would ;  but  he  did 


FIEFS  AND  AIDS  83 

not  give  it  outright,  nor  did  he  give  it  without  recompense. 
The  king  as  overlord  merely  gave  to  any  man  he  wished  to 
reward  the  use  of  the  land  during  his  lifetime.  In  return 
the  subject  promised  to  be  faithful  to  his  king,  and  to  help 
him  in  his  wars.  This  was  done  with  solemn  ceremony. 
Kneeling  before  the  king  the  subject  placed  his  hands  within 
those  of  the  king  and  vowed  to  be  his  man.  The  king  then 
kissed  and  raised  him  to  his  feet,  and  the  act  of  homage  was 
complete. 

Next,  with  his  hand  upon  some  holy  relic,  or  upon  the  Gos- 
pels, the  vassal  took  the  oath  of  fealty,  and  swore  to  be  true 
to  his  overlord.  This  being  done,  the  king  gave  his  vassal 
a  sod  of  earth  and  the  branch  of  a  tree  as  a  sign  that  he  was 
now  in  possession  of  the  land  for  which  he  had  done  homage. 
It  was  only  the  great  vassals  or  vassals-in-chief  who  received 
their  land  directly  from  the  king.  They,  in  their  turn, 
divided  their  land,  and  granted  it  in  fiefs  to  lesser  lords,  who 
did  homage  not  to  the  king  but  to  them.  They  again 
divided  their  land  among  still  lesser  lords.  And  so  it  went 
on,  from  highest  to  lowest,  from  the  king  who,  in  theory, 
possessed  all  the  land  down  to  the  poor  knight  who  did 
homage  to  some  petty  lord  for  a  few  acres. 

Besides  undertaking  to  furnish  him  with  a  certain  number 
of  soldiers  in  time  of  war,  the  vassal  had  other  obligations 
towards  his  lord.  The  chief  of  these  were  the  aids.  These 
aids  were  sums  of  money  which  the  overlord  had  the  right 
to  ask  on  four  occasions  :  namely,  upon  the  knighting  of  his 
eldest  son,  upon  the  marriage  of  his  eldest  daughter,  upon 
his  departure  for  a  Crusade,  and  for  his  own  ransom,  should 
he  happen  to  be  taken  prisoner  in  battle.  The  vassal  was 
also  bound  to  come  when  called  upon  to  help  his  lord  with 
advice. 

In  theory  a  vassal  was  put  in  possession  of  a  fief  for  his  life- 
time only ;  but,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  fiefs  descended  from 
father  to  son.  For  when  a  holder  died  his  eldest  son  did 


84  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

homage  for  the  fief  and  swore  fealty  to  his  overlord  as  his 
father  had  done  before  him.  If,  however,  a  holder  died 
without  direct  heirs,  then  the  fief  returned  into  the  possession 
of  the  overlord.  Or  should  a  vassal  fail  in  his  duty,  or  prove 
a  traitor  to  his  overlord,  then  the  fief  was  forfeited,  and  the 
overlord  took  possession  of  it  again — if  he  could. 

The  chief  return  which  the  overlord  gave  to  his  vassal 
for  the  military  help  and  aids  promised  by  his  vassal  was 
protection.  And  the  rapid  growth  of  the  feudal  system  is 
due  greatly  to  the  need  of  this  protection.  In  the  lawless 
times  which  followed  upon  the  break-up  of  Charlemagne's 
Empire  the  small  landowners  were  at  the  mercy  of  the  great. 
The  land  was  full  of  marauding  barons,  and  might  was  right. 
If  a  man  was  not  strong  enough  to  defend  his  life  or  his  goods 
with  his  sword,  another  took  it.  It  was  easy  enough  for 
the  baron,  with  twenty  retainers  at  his  back,  to  swoop  down 
upon  the  poor  knight  who  had  but  five,  and  having  slain  him, 
to  take  possession  of  all  his  goods  and  lands.  So  rather  than 
lose  both  land  and  life,  many  of  the  lesser  nobles  who  had 
held  their  lands  in  the  old  free  way  were  glad  to  give  them 
up  to  some  powerful  lord,  and  receive  them  again  as  fiefs 
together  with  the  assurance  of  protection. 

In  theory  the  feudal  system  was  an  excellent  way  of 
maintaining  an  army  for  the  benefit  of  the  state  with  little 
expense  to  the  state.  If  the  king  wished  to  go  to  war  (and 
in  those  days  he  nearly  always  wished  to  go  to  war  against 
one  or  other  enemy)  he  called  upon  his  great  vassals  to 
supply  him  with  men.  They  called  upon  their  vassals,,  they, 
in  turn,  upon  theirs,  and  so  on  down  the  long  line,  until  the 
lowest  rank  was  reached,  and  a  goodly  company  gathered  to 
the  royal  standard. 

In  practice  the  results  were  by  no  means  so  good.  In  the 
first  place,  only  the  vassals-in-chief  paid  homage  direct  to 
the  king.  All  other  vassals  paid  homage  and  swore  fealty 
to  their  own  particular  lord,  duke,  or  count.  The  king  was 


FEUDAL  SYSTEM  IN  ENGLAND  85 

far  off,  he  was  but  a  name  to  many  of  his  so-called  subjects. 
The  count  or  duke  was  near,  he  lived  among  his  vassals ; 
they  knew  him  and,  in  fear  or  affection,  followed  him  to 
battle  wherever  he  led  them,  even  against  the  king  himself. 
In  practice  thus  the  great  vassals  were  often  stronger  than 
the  king,  and  when  they  rebelled  against  his  authority  he 
found  it  hard,  or  even  impossible,  to  subdue  them. 

William  the  Conqueror  and  the  Feudal  System 

The  feudal  system  made  a  strong  central  government 
impossible,  and  the  lands  in  which  it  flourished  most  became 
little  more  than  a  collection  of  independent  and  tumultuous 
states,  each  one  of  which  was  a  miniature  kingdom  in 
itself. 

In  England  this  state  of  things  was  to  a  great  extent 
avoided  by  the  wisdom  of  William  the  Conqueror.  He  knew 
that  as  Duke  of  Normandy  he  was  as  strong,  or  stronger, 
in  France  than  the  king  he  owned  as  overlord.  He  deter- 
mined that  in  England  no  vassal  should  be  as  strong  as  he. 
So  in  rewarding  his  Norman  vassals  by  giving  them  English 
land,  he  was  careful  not  to  give  any  one  of  them  a  large  tract 
in  one  place.  If  a  vassal's  deserts  demanded  a  great  re- 
ward he  received  not  one  large  estate  but  several  small  ones 
scattered  widely  over  the  country.  This  made  it  difficult 
for  a  vassal  to  gather  all  his  men-at-arms  together  without 
the  fact  coming  to  the  king's  knowledge.  Besides  this, 
William  made  all  vassals  swear  fealty  to  himself  direct, 
whether  they  received  their  land  as  vassals-in-chief  or  held 
it  merely  as  sub- vassals  from  some  duke  or  count. 

Within  his  fief  every  feudal  lord  was  absolute.  He  had  the 
power  of  life  and  of  death  over  his  vassals.  He  was  ruler  and 
judge.  He  made  war  where  and  when  he  chose.  For  in 
those  days  private  war  was  a  common  right.  The  pettiest 
baron  might  make  war  on  his  neighbour  if  he  felt  disposed, 
the  only  condition  being  that  he  must  declare  war  with  due 


86  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

ceremony  before  beginning  to  fight.     This  was  done  by  send- 
ing a  gage,  generally  a  glove,  to  the  enemy. 

As  war  was  a  common  right,  every  man  rich  enough  not  to 
require  to  work  with  his  hands  was  a  soldier.  No  other 
profession  except  that  of  a  priest  was  open  to  a  gentleman. 
Dignity  did  not  allow  the  great  lords  to  farm  their  own  lands,  ( 
and  a  life  of  idleness  and  a  love  of  adventure  drove  them 
forth  to  fight  on  all  and  every  occasion.  So  it  came  about 
that  all  the  upper  classes  from  the  king  to  the  poorest 
knight  were  soldiers.  They  were  all  gentlemen  and  idlers 
save  for  their  profession  as  soldiers. 

Beneath  them,  and  sharply  cut  off  from  them,  came  the 
workers.  They  were  divided  into  several  classes,  the  lowest 
of  which  were  villains  and  slaves.  They  were  part  and  parcel 
with  the  land.  When  a  fief  passed  from  one  overlord  to 
another  they  passed  with  it.  In  life  and  in  death  they  were 
tied  to  the  land.  They  were  as  much  their  lord's  property 
as  his  cattle,  and  could  neither  marry  nor  take  any  other 
great  step  in  life  without  his  permission. 

Yet  the  villain  was  not  a  slave.  He  could  not  leave  the 
land,  it  is  true,  but  neither  could  his  overlord  take  from  him 
the  small  portion  of  land  which  had  been  granted  to  him, 
so  long  as  he  paid  his  dues.  These  dues  generally  consisted  of 
a  certain  number  of  days'  labour  each  year,  and  a  certain 
proportion  of  his  harvest  and  cattle.  The  slave,  on  the  other 
hand,  had  no  rights.  He  was  absolutely  in  the  hands  of  his 
overlord.  He  could  be  sold  or  even  slain  if  his  master  so 
pleased. 


TOURNAMENTS  87 


CHAPTER  XVIII 

TOURNAMENT  AND   FEUDAL 
WARFARE 

BY  the  feudal  system  the  world  was  divided  into  two  great 
classes.  The  upper  class  was  an  aristocracy  of  soldiers,  the 
lower  class  comprised  all  the  workers.  In  both  classes 
there  were  many  grades,  but  between  the  richest  peasant 
and  the  poorest  squire  there  was  a  great  gulf  fixed  which, 
in  feudal  times,  it  was  almost  impossible  to  cross. 

Labour  was  the  portion  of  the  lower  classes,  war  was  both 
the  profession  and  the  amusement  of  the  upper  classes. 
And  if  by  any  chance  there  was  no  real  war  to  occupy  and 
amuse  them,  they  played  at  it  and  got  up  mimic  battles 
called  tournaments. 

These  tournaments  were  generally  fought  in  presence  of  the 
king  or  of  some  great  noble  and  his  ladies.  Clad  in  full 
armour,  as  if  for  actual  warfare,  but  armed  with  blunted 
weapons,  the  combatants  rode  at  each  other,  each  man  trying 
not  to  kill  but  to  unhorse  his  opponent.  The  knight  who 
bore  himself  best,  and  brought  the  greatest  number  of 
opponents  to  the  ground,  was  adjudged  the  winner,  and 
received  a  prize. 

But  often  tournaments  were  of  a  much  more  informal 
character.  Indeed,  for  the  youths  of  those  times  they  took 
the  place  of  the  Saturday  afternoon  games  of  cricket  or 
football  of  to-day.  A  writer  of  the  twelfth  century  tells 
us  that  the  young  men  of  London  were  in  the  habit  of  holding 
a  tournament  every  Sunday  afternoon  in  Lent. 

"  A  noble  train  of  young  men/'  he  says,  "  take  the  field 
after  dinner  well  mounted  on  horses  of  the  best  mettle.  The 
citizens  rush  out  of  the  gates  in  shoals,  furnished  with  lances 


88  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

and  shields,  the  younger  sort  with  javelins,  pointed,  but 
disarmed  of  their  steel.  They  ape  the  feats  of  war,  and  act 
the  sham  fight,  practising  the  agonistic  exercises  of  that  kind. 
If  the  king  happens  to  be  near  the  city  many  courtiers  honour 
them  with  their  presence,  together  with  the  juvenile  part 
of  the  households  of  the  bishops,  earls,  and  barons,  such  as 
are  not  yet  dignified  with  the  honour  of  knighthood,  and  are 
desirous  of  trying  their  skill.  The  hope  of  victory  excites  to 
emulation.  The  generous  chargers  neigh  and  champ  the 
bit.  At  length  when  the  course  begins,  and  the  youthful 
combatants  are  divided  into  classes  or  parties,  one  body 
retreats  and  another  pursues,  without  being  able  to  come  up 
with  them,  whilst  in  another  quarter  the  pursuers  overtake 
the  foe,  unhorse  them,  and  pass  them,  many  a  length." 

But  although  tournaments  were  meant  merely  as  trials  of 
skill,  they  were  often  more  deadly  than  real  battles,  and  many 
a  knight,  who  had  passed  unscathed  through  frequent  wars, 
met  his  death  in  the  lists. 

For  in  the  wars  of  the  middle  ages  the  nobles  on  opposing 
sides  often  tried,  just  as  in  tournaments,  to  unhorse  and  take 
prisoner  their  foes  rather  than  slay  them.  This  was  not 
because  of  any  tenderness  to  the  foe,  nor  because  of  any 
desire  to  save  life — for  in  those  days  the  taking  of  life  sat 
lightly  on  a  man's  conscience ;  it  was  merely  a  matter  of 
business.  War  was  the  business  of  the  nobles.  It  was 
necessary  to  make  it  pay.  And  although  no  noble  would 
have  stooped  to  work  with  his  hands  he  was  never  averse 
to  making  a  good  bargain.  For  a  living  noble  a  large 
ransom  could  always  be  wrung  out  of  the  pockets  of  his 
vassals,  while  for  his  dead  body  they  would  pay  nothing. 

There  was  little  that  was  ennobling  or  fine  about  these 
feudal  wars.  They  were  not  uprisings  against  tyranny, 
they  were  not  struggles  for  liberty,  they  were  not  patriotic. 
They  were  simply  wars  of  aggression  and  greed.  A  man  won 
possession  of  his  land  by  his  sword.  And  if  by  the  sword  he 


THE  CLERGY  AND  FEUDALISM       89 

could  not  keep  it,  then  another  took  it  from  him,  and  the 
weakest  perished.     It  was  the  doctrine  of  the  mailed  fist. 

Every  great  noble  knew  that  he  must  be  prepared  to  resist 
the  attacks  of  his  neighbour,  for  every  neighbour  was  a 
possible  enemy.  So  every  castle  became  a  fortress,  built 
not  for  pleasure  and  beauty  but  for  strength  Generally 
a  high  position,  difficult  of  access  and  easy  of  defence,  was 
chosen  as  a  site.  The  buildings  were  defended  by  stone 
battlements  of  enormous  strength  and  thickness,  and 
surrounded  by  a  moat  crossed  only  by  a  drawbridge  which 
could  be  raised  at  pleasure  from  within.  So  strong  were 
they  that  before  gunpowder  was  invented  it  was  almost 
impossible  to  take  them  except  by  starving  the  defenders. 
In  feudal  wars,  therefore,  sieges  bulk  largely. 

Feudal  Estates  of  the  Clergy 

Many  of  the  abbeys  and  monasteries,  too,  were  fortresses. 
Like  Durham  they  were  "  Half  house  of  God,  half  castle 
'gainst  the  Scot  "  or  other  enemy.  The  great  among  the 
clergy  were  also  great  feudal  lords,  and  they  were  just  as 
eager  to  increase  the  domains  of  their  abbeys  and  monas- 
teries as  were  the  secular  lords  to  add  to  their  manors  and 
estates.  We  hear  of  a  bishop,  who,  "  not  content  with  the 
dignity  of  his  office,  next  anticipated  in  his  mind  how  he  might 
accomplish  great  and  wonderful  things.  For  he  possessed 
a  haughty  speaking  mouth,  with  the  proudest  heart.  At 
last,  having  collected  a  band  of  needy  and  desperate  men, 
he  began  his  mad  career,  and  became,  like  Nimrod,  a  mighty 
hunter  before  the  Lord,  forgetting  that  his  office  required 
him  to  be,  with  Peter,  a  fisher  of  men.  Every  day  he  was 
joined  by  troops  of  adherents,  among  whom  he  was  con- 
spicuous above  all  by  the  head  and  shoulders,  and  like 
some  mighty  commander  he  inflamed  their  desires." 

For  a  time  he  was  successful  in  all  his  undertakings, 
and  became  an  object  of  terror  even  to  the  king ;  but  at 


90  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

length  he  met  his  match  in  another  bishop,  "  a  man  of  singu- 
lar simplicity  "  who,  when  tribute  was  demanded  of  him, 
refused,  and  went  forth  to  do  battle  against  his  marauding 
brother-bishop.  "  And  by  God's  grace  he  threw  a  hatchet 
which  felled  his  enemy  to  the  earth  as  he  rode  in  the  van." 

At  another  time  we  hear  of  an  abbot  who  rode  to  the  siege 
of  Windsor,  "  where  he  appeared  in  arms  with  some  other 
abbots  of  England,  and  had  his  own  standard.  He  had 
there  also  many  knights  at  great  expense."  But,  says  his 
biographer,  "  we  who  were  cloistered  monks  considered  this 
course  of  action  to  be  fraught  with  danger,  fearing  lest 
some  future  abbot  might  be  compelled  to  go  to  war  in 
person." 

The  Truce  of  God 

But  although  there  were  many  warlike  churchmen,  there 
were  far  more  who  saw,  with  grief,  the  awful  devastation 
made  by  the  constant  wars  between  the  nobles.  At  length, 
through  their  influence,  the  Truce  of  God  was  announced. 
By  this  Truce  fighting  was  forbidden  from  Wednesday 
evening  till  Monday  morning,  so  that  the  days  upon  which 
Christ  suffered,  died,  and  rose  again  should,  at  least,  be  kept 
free  from  strife.  Besides  this,  war  was  forbidden  altogether 
during  Lent  and  Advent,  and  upon  all  great  feasts  and  vigils. 
Thus,  if  the  Truce  of  God  had  been  fully  enforced,  only  about 
a  quarter  of  the  year  remained  in  which  it  was  lawful  to 
fight.  This  was,  however,  far  too  short  a  time  for  the  tur- 
bulent nobles,  and  the  Truce  was  many  times  broken. 
Yet  the  Church  was  so  powerful  that  it  often  found  means 
to  punish  those  who  broke  the  Truce,  and  bring  them  to 
submission. 

That  the  Church  was  able  to  pronounce  the  Truce  of  God 
at  all  shows  how  powerful  it  had  become.  It  was  the  duty 
of  kings  to  keep  peace  within  their  dominions.  But  they 
were  unable  to  do  it.  So  the  Church  stepped  in  and  per- 


THE  END  OF  THE  CAROLINGIANS  91 

formed  the  duty  for  them,  and  the  Truce  of  God  remained 
more  or  less  in  force  until  the  thirteenth  century.  Then  the 
power  of  the  rulers  increased,  and  in  time  the  "  King's 
Peace  "  took  the  place  of  that  of  the  Church. 


CHAPTER  XIX 

THE  HOLY  ROMAN  EMPIRE 
SAXON   EMPERORS 

THE  fortunes  of  the  three  countries  carved  out  of  the  Empire 
of  Charlemagne, were  widely  different.  France  slowly,  but 
surely,  became  welded  into  a  nation,  but  Germany  remained 
merely  a  conglomeration  of  independent  states.  For 
while  France  struggled  towards  unity,  Germany  chased 
after  the  phantom  of  world  dominion,  claiming  with  the 
title  of  emperor  the  right  to  rule  over  Italy.  This  claim 
brought  great  evil  to  Italy,  it  brought  scarcely  less  evil  to 
Germany.  It  produced  endless  wars  and  strife  with  the 
Church,  it  was  a  constant  hindrance  to  the  real  progress  of 
Germany,  and  for  nine  hundred  years  it  prevented  Italy 
from  becoming  a  united  nation. 

Feebleness  of  Later  Carolingians 

The  family  of  Charlemagne  died  out  in  feebleness.  Of 
that  feebleness  we  get  some  idea  from  the  names  borne  by 
the  last  rulers  of  his  house,  such  as  "  the  Bald,"  "  the  Fat," 
"  the  Simple,"  "  the  Child."  In  Germany  the  line  came  to  an 
end  in  911  with  Louis  the  Child  ;  in  France  it  lasted  a  little 
longer,  and  came  to  an  end  in  987  with  Louis  the  Faineant. 
In  both  countries  upon  the  death  of  the  last  Carolingian 
the  nobles  met  together  and  chose  a  successor  from  among 
their  number.  But  whereas  in  France  the  monarchy  at 


92  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

once  became  hereditary,  and  remained  so  until  the  Revolu- 
tion, in  Germany  an  elective  monarchy  continued,  in  name 
at  least,  until  the  eighteenth  century. 

911  Upon  the  death  of  Louis  the  Child  the  German  nobles 
chose  Conrad  of  Franconia  as  their  ruler.  But  his  power 
was  visionary.  The  great  princes  ruled  like  kings  in  their 
own  domains,  quarrelling  among  themselves  and  flouting 
imperial  authority. 

Still,  small  although  his  power  was,  Conrad  kept  the  Empire 
from  being  broken  up  into  absolutely  independent  states. 
He  saw,  however,  how  slight  his  influence  was,  and  at  his 

918  death  he  prayed  the  princes  to  choose  as  his  successor,  not 
one  of  his  own  family,  but  Henry  of  Saxony. 

The  Saxon  Emperors 

918-      The  nobles  followed  Conrad's  advice,  and  Henry  became 

qoc  •* 

the  first  of  the  Saxon  emperors  who  held  the  regal  power  in 
Germany  for  more  than  a  hundred  years,  918-1024.  For 
although  the  crown  was  elective  in  theory,  it  very  often 
descended  from  father  to  son,  the  son  being  chosen  and 
crowned  as  successor  in  his  father's  lifetime. 

Conrad  kept  the  Empire  from  falling  asunder.  Henry  gave 
it  some  sort  of  unity,  the  effect  of  which  lasted  long  after  his 
death.  He  wrought  peace  within  the  Empire,  forcing  the 
great  princes  to  own  him  as  overlord,  so  that  before  the  end 
of  his  reign  there  was  no  German-speaking  people  who  did 
not  own  allegiance  to  the  Empire.  He  quelled  the  fierce 
Hungarians  who  were  a  constant  menace  to  the  German 
states.  He  built  towns,  encouraged  industries  and  agri- 
culture, and  colonized  many  parts  of  Germany  which  had 
before  been  almost  bare  of  inhabitants. 

Henry  gave  his  life  to  Germany,  and  did  not  trouble  about 
Italy,  or  the  phantom  glory  of  the  imperial  title,  and  therein 
lay  much  of  his  success.  Towards  the  end  of  his  life,  in- 
deed, when  his  work  for  Germany  seemed  done,  he  felt  the 


OTTO  I,  THE  GREAT  93 

fatal  lure,  and  made  up  his  mind  to  go  to  Rome  to  be  crowned. 
But  he  died  before  his  purpose  was  accomplished. 

Henry  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Otto  I,  the  Great.  He  was  936- 
only  twenty-four  when  he  came  to  the  throne,  and  the  power-  973 
ful  nobles  who  had  bowed  to  his  father  refused  to  bow  to 
him.  So  his  reign  began  with  civil  war,  the  chief  among 
the  rebels  being  members  of  his  own  family.  His  reign, 
indeed,  was  full  of  wars  at  home  and  abroad,  but  in  the  end 
he  was  victorious  everywhere.  He  subjugated  the  Bo- 
hemians, he  forced  the  Danes  to  own  him  as  overlord,  and 
in  the  great  battle  of  Lechfield  in  955,  he  so  thoroughly 
defeated  the  Hungarians  that  they  ceased  to  be  a  menace 
to  Germany,  and  began  to  settle  down  in  a  civilized  manner 
in  the  country  which  is  still  called  by  their  name. 

Otto  I — Dreams  of  World  Dominion 

By  all  these  wrars  Otto  strengthened  and  consolidated  his 
kingdom,  and  Germany  took  a  first  place  among  the  states 
of  Europe.  But  unfortunately  for  the  future  of  Germany 
Otto's  ambition  did  not  end  there.  Germany  was  not  every- 
thing to  him  as  it  had  been  to  his  father.  His  thoughts 
turned  to  world  dominion,  and  when  the  Princess  Adelheid 
of  Italy  prayed  him  to  come  and  release  her  from  the  op- 
pression of  King  Berenger,  he  answered  her  call  eagerly. 

Otto  defeated  Berenger,  married  the  Princess  Adelheid, 
and  took  the  title  of  king  of  Italy.     Then  he  marched  to  962 
Rome  and  received  the  imperial  crown  at  the  hands  of  the 
pope. 

For  more  than  sixty  years  no  German  king  had  held  the 
title  of  emperor,  and  during  that  time  Germany  had  made 
strides  towards  unity.  The  title  meanwhile  had  not  lapsed, 
but  it  had  been  held  by  petty  kings,  who  had  little  power 
and  who  were  of  no  account  in  the  politics  of  Europe.  In 
theory  the  holder  was  the  secular  lord  of  the  world,  in  theory 
he  was  overlord  of  every  king  or  prince  in  Europe,  but  having 


94  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

been  held  by  princes  of  no  real  power,  men  had  grown  to 
regard  it  little.  Now  Otto,  already  a  great  and  powerful 
ruler,  pulled  the  imperial  title  out  of  the  mud,  and  made  it 
great  again.  From  his  reign,  in  fact,  we  may  date  the  true 
beginning  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire.  He  revived  the 
Empire  of  Charlemagne,  with  less  territory  indeed,  but  with 
no  less  splendour.  But  in  doing  this  he  linked  the  fortunes 
of  Germany  with  those  of  Italy,  to  the  lasting  misfortune  of 
both.  To  both  the  connexion  was  fatal.  Instead  of 
strengthening  their  own  kingdom,  henceforth  the  German 
kings,  driven  on  by  the  baleful  enchantment,  dreamt  of 
world-power,  and  for  nine  hundred  years  poured  out  blood 
and  treasure  in  a  vain  endeavour  to  subjugate  Italy,  thus 
keeping  Germany  weak  and  Italy  disunited. 

Meanwhile  Otto  ruled  the  Empire  with  a  high  hand.  He 
even  ruled  the  Church,  for  by  the  middle  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury the  papacy  had  fallen  low,  and  the  lives  of  the  popes 
had  become  a  scandal.  Otto  dethroned  popes  at  will  and 
imposed  others  of  his  own  choosing  on  the  Roman  people, 
and  so  asserted  his  power  that  by  the  end  of  his  reign  he 
had  pulled  the  papacy,  even  as  he  had  pulled  the  imperial 
title,  out  of  the  mud  in  which  he  had  found  it.  But  the 
Church  was  under  the  state  ;  the  popes  had  to  bow  to  the 
emperor's  will. 


CHAPTER  XX 

THE   HOLY   ROMAN   EMPIRE 

THE  STRUGGLE  BETWEEN   POPE  AND 

EMPEROR 

THREE  Saxon  Emperors  followed  Otto.     Then,  with  Henry 
II  the  line  came  to  an  end,  and  with  Conrad  II  that  of  the 


HENRY  III  AND  THE  PAPACY  95 

Franconian  emperors  began,  and  lasted  for  a  hundred  years.  J9Sg~ 
With  the  second  of  these  emperors,  Henry  III,  the  Empire  1Q39_ 
reached  the  height  of  its  power,  and  appeared  more  like  a  1056 
united  whole  than  ever  before.     For  Henry  was  one  of  the 
best  and  strongest  rulers  of  the  middle  ages. 

In  nothing,  perhaps,  did  Henry  show  himself  greater  than 
in  curbing  private  war  in  Germany.  In  neighbouring  states 
the  Truce  of  God  had  been  proclaimed.  Henry  imposed 
upon  his  people  the  King's  Peace.  In  this  peace  the  land 
prospered  as  it  had  never  done  before.  Peasants  tilled  their 
fields  in  safety,  and  merchants  passeol  from  town  to  town 
unmolested. 

Henry  III  and  the  Papacy 

In  the  Church,  too,  Henry  made  his  power  felt.  The 
papacy  had  again  sunk  into  the  slough  from  which  Otto  I 
had  drawn  it,  and  three  popes  struggled  for  the  papal 
throne.  Henry  deposed  all  three  and  installed  as  pope  a  1046 
German,  a  member  of  the  imperial  house.  Indeed,  during 
his  reign  he  installed  no  fewer  than  four  popes,  all  of  them 
Germans.  Under  them  the  papacy  was  raised  from 
its  degraded  position.  But  in  thus  helping  to  purify  and, 
in  consequence,  strengthen  the  Church,  Henry,  all  uncon- 
sciously, laid  the  foundations  of  the  great  struggle  between 
the  Empire  and  the  papacy.  For  the  time,  however,  the 
Emperor's  triumph  over  the  Church  was  complete,  and  it 
seemed  as  if  imperial  supremacy  was  firmly  and  enduringly 
fixed. 

But  in  thus  giving  his  time  and  thought  to  things  papal 
and  Italian,  Henry  lost  much  of  his  influence  in  Germany, 
and  in  the  last  years  of  his  life  troubles  gathered  thick  about 
him.     In  the  midst  of  these  he  died,  leaving  a  child  of  six  1056 
to  succeed  him. 

With  a  child  upon  the  throne  the  bands  by  which  Henry 
III  had  bound  the  Empire  together  loosened.  The  power 


96  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

of  the  emperor  became  less,  the  power  of  the  princes  became 
far  greater  than  it  had  ever  been  since  the  time  of  Otto  I. 
The  princes  rose  against  the  emperor,  they  fought  among 
themselves,  and  the  whole  land  was  filled  with  strife. 

Henry  IV  and  Gregory  VII 

1073  It  was  when  the  Empire  was  thus  weakened  that  the  monk 
Hildebrand,  who  had  already  become  a  great  power  in  the 
Church  was  elected  as  pope.  He  chose  the  name  of 
Gregory  VII,  and  under  that  name  he  became  even  more 
powerful  than  he  had  been  as  Hildebrand.  Between  him 
and  Henry  IV  a  bitter  struggle  for  supremacy  began. 

Two  years  after  his  inauguration  Gregory  issued  a  decree 
declaring  that  henceforth  bishops  should  not  be  chosen  by 
the  emperor  nor  by  any  lay  person,  but  that  the  investiture 
should  be  entirely  in  the  hands  of  the  Church.  Now 
emperor  after  emperor  had  tried  to  strengthen  the  clergy 
in  order  to  curb  the  power  of  the  nobles.  And  to  do  this 
emperor  after  emperor  had  given  them  lands  to  hold  in 
fief,  until  at  length  a  great  part  of  the  soil  of  Germany  was 
in  their  hands.  If,  then,  the  pope  alone  had  power  to  ap- 
point bishops,  all  these  lands  would  pass  into  his  control, 
and  the  imperial  authority  would  be  seriously  lessened. 

Henry  was  at  this  time  only  twenty-five.  He  was 
passionate  and  ill-balanced,  and  little  calculated  to  cope  with 
a  pope  of  overweening  pride  and  terrible  severity.  He  was 
in  no  mood  to  yield  up  any  of  his  authority,  and  he  deposed 
the  pope.  For  had  not  his  father  elected  and  deposed 
1076  popes  as  he  would.  But  Gregory  was  no  German  pope, 
ready  to  bow  to  the  commands  of  a  German  king.  Instead 
of  being  cowed  by  this  show  of  imperial  power,  he  replied  to 
it  by  excommunicating  Henry  and  threatening  to  depose 
him  if  he  remained  impenitent. 

Never  before  had  a  pope  dared  to  use  such  arrogance  to- 
wards an  emperor,  and  had  Henry  been  surrounded  by  faith- 


HENRY  IV  AND  THE  PAPACY  97 

ful  vassals,  had  he  ruled  over  a  united  people,  the  thunders 
of  the  pope  might  have  fallen  harmless  upon  him  ;  but 
because  of  that  dream  of  world  dominion  Germany  was  not 
united.  There  was  little  German  loyalty  to  a  ruler  who 
claimed  the  world  as  his  dominion.  Every  prince  of  the 
Empire  was  constantly  seeking  an  opportunity  to  become  an 
independent  ruler.  Now  many  saw  their  opportunity,  for 
the  pope  had  set  them  free  from  their  allegiance,  and  Henry 
found  his  empire  filled  with  rebellion  and  his  authority 
vanishing  into  thin  air. 

Henry  soon  saw  that  only  by  submitting  to  the  pope 
could  he  regain  his  authority  over  his  rebellious  subjects, 
and  he  made  up  his  mind  to  submit  at  once.  It  was  no  1077 
repentance  for  his  deed  which  urged  him  to  this,  but  merely 
political  necessity.  In  midwinter  he  crossed  the  Alps, 
and  after  incredible  hardships  reached  Canossa,  where  the 
haughty  pope  awaited  him.  There,  one  bitter  winter 
morning,  while  the  snow  lay  on  the  ground,  the  proud 
emperor  appeared  before  the  castle  gates  of  the  still  prouder 
pope.  Clad  in  the  garb  of  a  penitent,  with  head  and  feet 
bare,  he  humbly  knocked,  begging  admission.  But  the 
door  remained  closed.  A  second  and  a  third  day  passed, 
and  still  Henry  stood  without  the  gates,  waiting  the  pleasure 
of  the  stern  old  man  within. 

At  length  Gregory  relented.  The  penitent  king  was  ad- 
mitted to  his  presence,  and  received  absolution.  Thus  did 
the  inexorable  priest  uphold  before  the  eyes  of  all  Christen- 
dom the  papal  right  to  judge  kings.  Thus  did  he  make  good 
his  claim  to  loose  and  to  bind  in  earthly  as  in  heavenly 
matters,  "  to  give  and  to  take  away  empires,  kingdoms, 
princedoms,  and  the  possessions  of  all  men."  Without 
striking  a  blow,  without  even  having  an  army  behind  him, 
this  little,  grey-haired  priest  had  conquered  "  the  lord  of  the 
world."  < 

But  the  pope,  by  his  haughty  measures,  had  made  an 

G 


98  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

implacable  enemy  of  Henry,  and  as  soon  as  he  felt  himself 
strong  enough  he  defied  the  pope  anew.  Again  he  was 
excommunicated,  and  again  he  replied  by  deposing  the  pope. 
This  time  he  set  up  an  anti-pope  and  marching  to  Rome 
1081  beseiged  Gregory  there. 

After  a  siege  of  three  years  Henry  entered  the  city  and 
received  the  imperial  crown  at  the  hands  of  his  own  pope, 

1084  Clement  III.     Gregory's  day  was  over,  and  he  fled  to  Salerno. 

1085  There  he   died,  but  even  in  death  he  did  not  forgive  the 
recreant  emperor,  and  he  died  leaving  his  enemy  still  under 
the  ban  of  the  Church. 

Rebellion  and  civil  war  filled  Henry's  last  days,  and  at 

1106  length,    deposed,  betrayed,  and   beggared,    he   died.     But 

the  pope's  curse  followed  him  even  beyond  the  grave,  and 

not  until  five  years  later  was  the  ban  removed  and  the  bones 

of  Henry  IV  laid  to  rest  in  consecrated  ground. 

Concordat  of  Worms 

Gregory  VII  was  dead,  Henry  IV  was  dead,  but  the 
struggle  over  the  investiture  continued.  For  succeeding 
popes  clung  to  the  great  powers  Gregory  had  claimed, 
succeeding  emperors  resisted  them.  Henry  V  succeeded 
his  father,  Henry  IV.  He  had  rebelled  against  his  father 
during  his  lifetime,  and  now  the  new  pope,  Paschal  II,  hoped 
to  find  in  him  an  obedient  servant ;  but  he  was  mistaken, 
and  the  struggle  continued.  At  length,  however,  at  the 
1122  Concordat  of  Worms,  Calixtus  II  being  now  pope,  an  agree- 
ment was  come  to.  It  was  agreed  that  the  pope  should 
have  the  right  to  investiture  with  ring  and  crozier,  but  that 
bishops  should  be  chosen  with  the  consent  of  the  emperor, 
and  that  they  should  do  homage  to  him  for  their  fiefs  in 
the  same  way  as  laymen. 

Thus  the  struggle  of  fifty  years  ended.  The  pope  was, 
in  the  main,  victorious,  for  although  he  had  not  been  able 
to  make  good  all  his  claims,  he  had  won  much  prestige, 


WILLIAM  THE  CONQUEROR  AND  THE  POPE    99 

whereas  the  emperor  had  lost  much.  But  although  the 
question  of  investiture  might  be  settled,  the  rivalry  between 
pope  and  emperor,  each  arrogantly  claiming  to  rule  the 
world,  continued  as  before.  More  and  more  the  popes 
strove  to  make  good  their  claim  to  be  not  only  the  chief 
priests  but  the  chief  princes  of  Christendom.  But  it  is  not 
uninteresting  to  note  the  difference  in  the  treatment  meted 
out  by  them  to  Henry  of  Germany  and  William  of  England. 

In  England  the  king  was  supreme  in  Church  and  state. 
There  the  people  alone  could  give  or  take  away  the  crown, 
there  the  king  made  and  unmade  bishops  without  reference 
to  the  pope.  But  in  the  hope  of  making  England  a  fief 
of  the  Church  the  pope,  Alexander  II,  blessed  the  enterprise 
of  William  of  Normandy  when  he  set  forth  to  conquer 
the  kingdom  from  Harold  the  Saxon.  William,  however, 
pious  Churchman  as  he  was,  having  conquered  England, 
meant  to  rule  there  as  sole  master.  Gregory  VII  also 
meant  to  rule  there  as  elsewhere,  and  after  some  preliminary 
skirmishes  in  which  William  yielded  nothing,  he  sent  a 
messenger  to  demand  from  the  king  of  England  an  oath  Probably 
of  fealty,  together  with  the  assurance  that  Peter's  Pence  108° 
should  be  more  punctually  paid. 

William's  reply  was  very  short,  very  decisive.  Bluntly 
he  refused  to  own  himself  the  pope's  man.  The  kings  of 
England  who  had  gone  before  him  had  never  sworn  fealty 
to  the  pope  ;  neither  would  he.  As  to  Peter's  Pence,  from 
ancient  times  it  had  been  paid,  and  he  would  continue  to 
pay  it.  What  was  lawfully  due  to  the  pope  the  pope 
should  have.  The  respect  due  to  the  chief  priest  of  Christen- 
dom he  should  also  have,  and  nothing  more.  The  right 
of  investiture,  over  which  pope  and  emperor  quarrelled  so 
fiercely,  was  never  even  mentioned,  and  whatever  wrath 
Gregory  may  have  felt  at  William's  refusal  of  fealty,  no 
thunders  of  the  Church  were  launched  at  the  recreant  king. 
This  was  partly,  doubtless,  because  Gregory  was  otherwise 


100 


A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


1137 


occupied.  His  arch-enemy  the  emperor  was  again  defiant, 
and  had  enthroned  an  anti-pope,  and  Gregory,  gathering 
his  forces  to  combat  him,  had  little  leisure  to  fight  the 
king  of  England. 

But  if  the  popes  were  unsuccessful  in  pressing  their  claims 
in  England,  in  Germany  they  were  more  successful.  During 
1125-  the  reign  of  Lothaire  the  Saxon,  who  followed  Henry  V  as 
ruler  of  Germany,  their  power  increased.  For  Lothaire  was 
weakly  fearful  of  arousing  the  pope's  wrath,  and  he  even 
went  so  far  as  to  acknowledge  the  pope  as  his  overlord,  in 
respect  of  some  Italian  lands,  of  which  he  might  have  claimed 
possession  outright. 

THE  SAXON  AND  SALIAN  EMPERORS 

Henry  the  Fowler, 

919-936. 


Conrad,      —  Liutgarde. 
Duke  of      | 
Lorraine.      | 

Otto. 

I 
Henry. 

I " 

Conrad  II,  1024-1039. 

I 
Henry  HI,  1039-1056, 

I 
Henry  IV,  1056-1106. 

I 
Henry  V,  1106-1125. 


1 

Otto  I, 

936-973. 
1 

i 

Henrv, 
Duke  of 
Bavaria. 

i 

Henry. 

i 

Henry  II, 

1002-1024. 

1 
irde.                Otto  II, 

973-983. 

Otto  III, 

983-1002. 

THE  CAPETIANS      '•>'*  101 


CHAPTER  XXI 

THE  PROGRESS   OF  FRANCE 
TOWARDS   NATIONALITY 

The  Capetians 

FOR    more    than  a  century  after  the  Treaty    of    Verdun  843 
(see  Chapter  X)  the  Carolingian  dynasty  struggled  on  in 
France  and  at  length,  with  Louis  the  Faineant,  it  died  out 
in  feebleness.  98? 

The  first  king  of  the  new  dynasty  was  Hugh  Capet, 
Count  of  Paris,  and  from  him  the  dynasty  is  known  as  that 
of  the  Capetians.  They  ruled  in  France  for  nearly  three 
and  a  half  centuries. 

Hugh  Capet  came  to  the  throne  of  France  not  by  in- 
heritance but  by  election,  and  in  spite  of  his  title  as  king,  he 
had  little  more  power  than  he  had  had  as  count.  His  so- 
called  vassals,  the  dukes  of  Normandy  and  Burgundy,  the 
counts  of  Anjou,  Flanders,  and  Champagne,  might  do  homage 
indeed  for  their  lands,  but  they  ruled  over  these  lands 
like  independent  sovereigns,  paying  little  or  no  heed  to  the 
wishes  or  commands  of  their  overlord  the  king. 

There  was  no  awe  or  reverence  for  the  king's  majesty.  If, 
in  theory,  by  his  grace  they  enjoyed  the  title  of  duke  or 
count  he,  no  less  by  their  grace,  enjoyed  that  of  king.  And 
the  angry  question  which  Hugh  addressed  to  one  of  these 
turbulent  nobles,  "  Who  made  you  count  ?  "  merely  brought 
forth  the  sharp  retort,  "  Who  made  you  king  ?  " 

But  weak  although  it  was  at  first,  the  Capetian  dynasty  per- 
sisted. King  followed  king  upon  the  throne  without  question 
or  revolt.  And  this  fact  alone  gave  at  length  to  the  govern- 
ment a  stability  quite  unknown  to  the  neighbouring  feudal 
state  of  Germany. 


102  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

'     ' 
William  the  Conqueror 

The  chief  event  of  European  importance  during  the  reigns 
of  the  first  Capetians  was  the  conquest  of  England  by  William, 
1060-  Duke  of  Normandy,  in  the  reign  of  Philip  I.     By  becoming 
1108    king   Of   Engian(j   William   became   a    far   more   powerful 
sovereign  than  his  overlord  the  king  of    France,  and  the 
conquest  of  England  by  him  had  almost  as  great  conse- 
quences for  France  as  for  England.     For  it  laid  the  founda- 
tion of  the  English  king's  claim  to  French  land,  a  claim 
which  plunged  both  countries  into  war  for  hundreds  of  years. 
H08-      It  was  during  the  reign  of  Philip  Fs  son,  Louis  VI,  that  the 
1137    long  struggle  between  English  and  French  for  supremacy  in 
France  began.     Louis  VI  was  the  first  king  of  France  to 
make  his  power  truly  felt.     As  a  young  man  he  was  known  as 
Louis  the  Fighter,  or  Louis  the  Wide-awake,  and  he  spent  the 
first  years  of  his  reign  in  subjugating  the  turbulent  princes 
of  the  realm.     He  fought  them,  imprisoned  them,  and  threw 
down  their  great  castles  where  they  had  lived  in  freedom, 
oppressing  whom  they  would.     And  in  the  end  he  forced 
many  of  them  to  recognize  the  superior  authority  of  the  king, 
and  to  respect  the  King's  Peace  and  the  King's  Justice. 

But  while  quelling  the  nobles  Louis  protected  the  villains 
and  the  serfs.  It  was  with  their  help,  indeed,  that  Louis 
subdued  the  nobles,  and  in  return  for  that  help  he  frequently 
granted  them  charters  of  freedom.  Thus,  from  being  slaves 
they  became  free  men.  They  built  towns  and  surrounded 
them  with  walls  like  the  castles  of  the  nobles,  coming  and 
going  at  will,  working  for  whom  they  would,  no  longer  being 
tied  to  the  land  and  forced  to  serve  their  overlord.  Thus  the 
citizen  or  burgher  class  began  to  rise  in  France. 

The  prince  whom  Louis  VI  found  hardest  to  subdue  was 
Henry  I,  king  of  England  who,  as  duke  of  Normandy,  was 
Louis's  vassal.  For  Henry  had  the  resources  of  a  kingdom 
behind  him,  and  when  he  rebelled  against  his  overlord  it 


LOUIS  VI,  KING  OF  FRANCE  103 

was  much  more  than  the  rebellion  of  a  mere  vassal.  It  was 
an  invasion  by  a  foreign  king  and  the  introduction  of  a 
foreign  influence. 

Louis's  task  was  therefore  twofold.  He  endeavoured,  first, 
to  subdue  the  feudal  power  to  the  regal  power ;  secondly,  he 
endeavoured  to  oust  foreign  influence  and  unify  and 
nationalize  his  whole  kingdom.  These  two  endeavours 
form  the  groundwork  of  French  history  for  hundreds  of 
years. 

Henry  II' s  Angevin  Kingdom 

Louis  VI  was,  to  some  extent,  successful  in  keeping  his 
great  vassal  of  England  in  check,  but  under  his  son  Louis  VII  1137- 
that  vassal  again  became  more  powerful.     For  Louis  VII  1 
made  the  great  mistake  of  allowing  Henry,  Count  of  Anjou 
and  Duke  of  Normandy,  to  marry  his  own  divorced  wife, 
Eleanor  of  Aquitaine.     By  this  marriage  Henry  became  lord  1152 
of  the  whole  south-west  of  France  which,  added  to  Normandy, 
Anjou,  and  Maine,  made  him  ruler  of  a  domain  larger  than 
that  of  the  French  king. 

Two  years  after  his  marriage  with  Eleanor  Henry  became 
king  of  England.  Thus  strengthened,  he  began  to  dream  of  1154 
establishing  a  great  Angevin  Empire  which  would  include 
the  whole  of  France  and  England.  But  Henry  II's  ambi- 
tions were  frustrated  partly  through  the  rebellion  of  his 
own  sons. 


Philip  Augustus 

Louis  VII  died  in  1180  and  was  succeeded  by  his  able,  H80- 
brave,  if  not  too  scrupulous  son,  Philip  Augustus.     France  1223 
for  Frenchmen  might  have  been  his  motto.     It  was  certainly 
his  aim,  and  to  advance  it  he  made  use  of  the  quarrels 
between  Henry  II  and  his  sons,  siding  with  these  sons  and 
making  a  great  friend  of  Richard,     But  when  Henry  II 


104  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

1189  died,  and  Philip's  one-time  friend  Richard  became  king  of 
England,  Philip  fought  him  as  he  had  fought  his  father 
Henry.  He  made,  however,  little  headway  against  the 
superior  military  genius  of  the  English  king,  and  it  was  not 
until  the  infamous  John  Lackland  came  to  the  throne  of 
England  that  the  French  king's  moment  arrived. 

1199  With  the  advent  of  John  the  struggle  entered  on  a  new 
phase,  and  the  end  could  not  long  be  doubtful.  For  on  the 
one  side  there  was  an  indolent,  vicious  king,  barely  tolerated 
by  an  alienated  people.  On  the  other  there  wras  an  energetic, 
calculating  soldier-statesman,  with  behind  him  a  people  in 
whom  the  sense  of  loyalty  and  of  nationality  was  fast 
awakening. 

Every  advantage  that  was  his  Philip  used  with  vigour. 
One  b}^  one  he  wrested  his  French  possessions  from  the  Eng- 
lish king,  until  there  was  nothing  left  to  him  except  Gascony. 
John,  overwhelmed  with  troubles  at  home,  fighting  his  own 
barons,  and  casting  defiance  at  the  pope,  let  his  French 
possessions  slip  from  him.  But  when  he  saw  them  gone  he 
desired  to  have  them  back  again.  So  he  made  an  alliance 

1198-  with  Otto  IV,  emperor  of  Germany,  and  together  they  made 
'    an  attack  on  France.     While  John  landed  in  the  south- 
west the  emperor  invaded  the  north-east.     But  Philip  had 
little  fear  of  John.     He  left  his  son  Louis  to  deal  with  him, 
and  himself  marched  against  the  German  emperor. 

Battle  of  Bouvines 

1214  The  two  forces  met  at  Bouvines,  a  few  miles  from  Lille, 
and  here  one  of  the  great  decisive  battles  of  the  Middle 
Ages  was  fought.  The  emperor  and  his  allies  were  utterly 
defeated.  Otto,  barely  escaping  with  his  life,  fled  back  to 
Germany,  to  find  himself  disowned  and  rejected,  while 
Philip  returned  in  triumph  to  Paris,  where  the  people  greeted 
him  with  cheers  and  cast  flowers  in  his  path.  Henceforth 
he  was  no  longer  merely  the  overlord  of  French  barons, 


K//»g  of  France  I      '  1 
Dependentonthe 
King  of  France. 
King  of  England 
Dependentonthe 


FRANCE  IN  THE  REIGN  OF  HENRY  II  OF  ENGLAND 


Io6  A- SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

he  was  king  of  the  French  people.     The  national  spirit  was 
awake. 

Philip's  wars  against  John  of  England  had  brought  him 
broad  and  fair  lands,  and  had  made  him  the  greatest  feudal 
overlord  in  France.  By  the  battle  of  Bouvines,  and  his  defeat 
of  the  German  emperor  he  won  not  an  inch  of  territory 
but  he  gained  for  France  a  first  place  among  the  nations  of 
Europe.  For  from  the  thirteenth  century  France  takes  a 
leading  place.  England  was  still  only  England,  not  the 
United  Kingdom,  and  the  great  Colonial  Empire  still  un- 
dreamed of;  Germany,  pursuing  the  quest  for  world  dominion, 
had  already  fallen  from  the  high  place  won  for  it  by  Otto  and 
by  Henry  III.  Italy  and  Spain  were  without  union  or 
nationality ;  Russia  had  not  yet  taken  its  place  as  a 
European  nation. 

THE  CAPETIAN  DYNASTY 

Hugh  Capet,  987-996  ;   Robert,  996-1031  ;  Henry  I,  1031-1060  ; 
Philip  I,  1060-1108  ;    Louis  VI,  1108-1137  •    Louis  VII,  1137- 

1180 

I 
Philip  II  (Augustus),  son  of  Louis  VII. 

1180-1223. 

i 

Louis  VIII,  1223-1226. 

i 

Louis  IX,  1226-1270. 

I 
Philip  III,  1270-1285. 

I 

Philip  IV,  1285-1314. 
i 


1 

Louis  X 
1314-1316, 

1 
Isabella, 

m.  Edward  II 
of  England, 

1 
Philip  V, 
1316-1322. 

1 
Charles  IV, 
1322-1328. 

THE  MAKING  OF  A  KNIGHT  107 

CHAPTER  XXII 
1    KNIGHTHOOD 

THE  Middle  Ages  was  a  time  of  unrestrained  lawlessness  and 
greed.  Yet  out  of  this  time  there  grew  something  fine  in  the 
ideas  of  chivalry  and  the  orders  of  knighthood.  We  cannot 
tell  when  the  idea  of  chivalry  began,  any  more  than  we  can 
say  when  feudalism  began.  It  grew  up  out  of  the  needs  of 
the  time. 

The  word  chivalry  is  of  French  origin,  coming  from  cheval, 
a  horse,  and  chevalier,  a  horseman ;  and  it  was  in  France, 
perhaps,  that  chivalry  found  its  truest  home.  As  the 
nobles  and  gentlemen  were  the  only  horsemen  of  feudal 
times,  it  was  with  them  alone  that  chivalry  had  to  do. 
In  time  it  entered  into  everything  connected  with  the  life 
of  the  nobles,  softening  to  some  extent  the  brutality  of  it, 
casting  a  glamour  of  romance  over  their  deeds,  and  giving 
them  a  religious  enthusiasm. 

Those  who  entered  the  orders  of  chivalry  were  called 
knights.  The  word  comes  from  the  Anglo-Saxon  cniht, 
and  originally  meant  boy  or  youth.  All  knights  were  made, 
not  born.  A  man  might  be  born  a  prince,  but  he  could 
only  become  a  knight  after  long  years  of  probation  and 
training. 

This  training  began  as  a  rule  when  the  boy  was  seven 
years  old.  He  was  then  sent  to  the  castle  of  some  friendly 
lord  where  he  became  a  page.  He  waited  on  his  lady  in  her 
bower,  and  stood  behind  his  master's  chair  in  hall,  learning 
the  dignity  of  obedience  and  the  beauty  of  gentleness.  He 
was  also  trained  in  every  knightly  exercise,  learning  how 
to  use  sword  and  spear,  to  ride  ,and  to  fly  a  falcon.  Thus 
every  feudal  castle  became  a  school  where  a  boy  might  learn 


io8  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

everything  which,  in  those  days,  it  was  thought  necessary  for 
a  gentleman  to  know. 

When  about  the  age  of  fifteen  the  page  became  a  sqiiire. 
As  squire  he  still  had  to  perform  many  household  and 
personal  duties,  such  as  carving  at  table,  presenting  the  wine- 
cup  to  his  master  or  chief  guests,  or  attending  upon  his  lady 
when  she  rode  abroad.  But  more  and  more  of  his  time  was 
taken  up  with  knightly  exercises,  and  he  learned  to  wear 
armour,  to  ride  a  war  horse,  and  take  part  in  tourna- 
ments. In  time  of  war,  too,  he  now  rode  forth  with  his 
master  in  battle,  bore  his  shield,  and  helped  him  to  don 
his  armour. 

Besides  all  this  the  knight-aspirant,  both  as  page  and 
squire,  was  taught  to  reverence  ladies,  and  to  be  courteous 
and  gentle  in  his  behaviour  towards  them.  This  showed  a 
wonderful  advance  in  civilization.  For  women  were  in 
those  days  of  small  account.  They  were  looked  upon  as 
little  more  than  possessions.  They  were  weak,  and  therefore, 
under  the  rule  of  the  mailed  fist,  might  be  taken  advantage  of. 
The  laws  of  chivalry  taught  men  to  protect  them  and  to  fight 
for  them  if  need  be. 

Having  for  five  or  six  years  proved  himself  faithful  in  all 
his  duties,  and  fearless  in  the  face  of  danger,  the  squire 
received  the  honour  of  knighthood.  This  was  conferred 
upon  him  with  solemn  ceremony. 

First  of  all  a  bath  was  taken  with  great  formality.  This 
was  a  sort  of  new  baptism,  a  symbol  that  past  sins  were 
washed  away.  Then  the  knight-aspirant  was  clad  in  a  white 
robe,  the  token  of  purity,  over  it  was  placed  a  red  robe  to 
signify  the  blood  which  he  would  have  to  shed  in  fulfilment 
of  the  vows  he  was  about  to  take,  and  lastly,  over  all,  a 
black  cloak  was  thrown  as  a  reminder  that  death  would  come 
to  him  as  to  all  men. 

Thus  purified  and  clothed  anew  the  squire  was  led  to  the 
church.  It  was  evening  now,  and  the  building  was  filled 


THE  MAKING  OF  A  KNIGHT  109 

with  dim,  mysterious  shadows,  and  here,  before  the  altar, 
he  was  left  alone  to  watch  the  long  night  through.  This  was 
called  the  vigil  of  arms.  To  sit  down  was  forbidden  to 
the  aspirant,  so  standing  or  kneeling  before  the  altar  he 
spent  the  silent,  lonely  hours  of  darkness  in  prayer  and 
thought. 

When  day  dawned  the  silence  was  broken  by  the  coming 
of  the  priests.  Mass  was  said,  the  squire  confessed,  and 
receiving  absolution,  partook  of  the  sacrament.  Then, 
in  the  presence  of  a  joyous  company,  consisting  of  all  the 
ladies,  knights,  squires,  and  pages  which  went  to  make  up 
the  household  of  a  great  noble,  the  most  solemn  part  of  the 
ceremony  took  place. 

First  the  squire  was  fully  clad  in  armour.  The  most 
noble  and  gentle  knights  present  bound  on  his  spurs  and 
signed  his  knees  with  the  sign  of  the  cross.  Then  his  sword, 
after  being  blessed  by  the  priest,  was  girded  on.  At  length, 
fully  clad  in  all  the  panoply  of  war,  the  squire  knelt  before 
the  priest,  vowing  faithfully  to  serve  the  Church  and  the 
king,  to  shun  no  adventure  of  his  person  in  any  good  cause, 
to  protect  widows  and  orphans,  and  women  distressed  or 
abandoned,  to  serve  his  ladylove  in  faith  and  honour,  to  be 
courteous  and  truthful,  and,  above  all  things  else,  to  die 
a  thousand  deaths  rather  than  break  his  word  or  deny  his 
religion. 

These  vows  being  taken,  the  squire  was  next  led  to  the 
noble  about  to  confer  knighthood  upon  him,  and  again 
kneeling,  he  received  on  his  neck  a  resounding  blow 
from  the  flat  of  his  sword.  This  was  the  accolade. 
"Be  brave  knight/'  said  the  noble;  or,  "May  God 
and  St.  George  make  thee  good  knight,"  and  the  ceremony 
was  over. 

Then,  springing  up,  the  new  knight  leapt  upon  his 
waiting  charger  without  touching  the  stirrup,  and,  lance 
in  hand,  rode  off  to  demolish  before  an  admiring 


no  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

crowd  the  dummy  foes  set  up  for  the  purpose.  This 
being  done,  the  rest  of  the  day  was  spent  in  feasting  and 
rejoicing. 

It  was  only  by  degrees  that  so  much  ceremony  gathered 
about  the  making  of  a  knight.  At  first  it  was  a  much  simpler 
matter,  consisting  of  little  more  than  the  accolade.  It  was 
only  by  degrees,  too,  that  it  took  on  its  religious  character, 
for  at  first  it  was  purely  military. 

As  the  ceremony  and  splendour  of  the  occasion  increased 
so  did  the  cost.  The  fitting  out  of  a  new  knight  alone  was 
costly,  including  as  it  did  robes,  armour,  arms,  horses, 
falcons,  and  many  other  things  which  were  deemed  necessary 
for  the  equipment  of  a  noble.  Besides  this,  money  was 
distributed  among  the  poor,  rich  presents  were  given  to  the 
minstrels  who  attended  at  the  ceremony,  new  robes  and  furs 
were  provided  for  the  ladies  of  the  household  and  often 
for  the  guests. 

Knights  Errant 

For  this  reason,  as  you  remember,  the  knighting  of  his 
eldest  son  was  one  of  the  occasions  upon  which  an  overlord 
had  the  right  to  call  for  an  "  aid "  in  money  from  his 
vassals.  For  this  reason,  too,  many  a  poor  gentleman  in 
spite  of  great  and  valiant  deeds,  which  would  have  en- 
titled him  to  become  a  knight,  remained  a  squire  all  his  life, 
not  having  the  wherewithal  to  pay  the  expenses  of  being 
knighted. 

There  was,  however,  another  mode  in  which  knighthood 
was  conferred.  This  was  on  the  battle-field.  Here  there  was 
no  expense  and  no  ceremony  save  the  accolade.  Any 
knight  of  renown  could  make  a  knight,  and  the  squire  had 
but  to  kneel  before  him  and  receive  the  accolade.  Knight- 
hood was  thus  conferred  after  a  battle  as  a  reward  for 
bravery.  But  it  was  just  as  frequently  conferred  before  a 
battle  as  an  incitement  to  brave  deeds.  Indeed,  there  was 


KNIGHTS  ERRANT  in 

hardly  a  battle  in  the  Middle  Ages  when  no  new  knights  were 
made  either  before  or  after. 

In  this  way  many  poor  gentlemen  who  had  no  other 
fortune  but  their  swords  became  knights.  Having  neither 
home  nor  land  they  wandered  about  the  world  seeking 
occasions  upon  which  to  show  their  prowess,  and  so  win 
fame  and  at  the  same  time  wealth.  These  became  known  as  . 
knights  errant,  and  they  figure  largely  in  the  Romances  of  the 
time. 

An  errant  knight 

Well  liorsed,  and  large  of  limb,  Sir  Gaudwin  hight, 
He,  nor  of  castle  nor  of  land  was  lord, 
Houseless  he  reaped  the  harvest  of  his  sword. 
And  now,  not  more  on  fame  than  profit  bent, 
Rode  with  blithe  heart  unto  the  tournament. 

The  knight  errant  was  ready  to  fight  for  any  cause  however 
mad,  so  long  as  honour  and  loyalty  did  not  forbid.  For 
with  the  coming  of  chivalry  there  arose  ideas  of  honour, 
faith,  and  courtesy,  and  any  knight  who  transgressed  against 
these  ideas  was  liable  to  degradation — many  did,  as  a  matter 
of  fact  so  transgress,  and  go  unpunished — but  retribution 
sometimes  overtook^him. 

Then  he  was  put  to  shame,  and  cast]out  of  the  brotherhood 
of  arms,  with  ceremony  as  solemn  as  that  of  his  initiation. 

By  the  most  noble  knights  of  the  district  the  recreant  was 
clad  in  full  armour,  as  if  about  to  take  the  field.  Then  he 
was  led  to  the  church,  where  a  high  stage  had  been  erected 
upon  which  he  was  made  to  mount.  There  thirteen  priests 
said  the  prayers  and  psalms  used  for  the  dead,  and  at  the 
end  of  each  prayer  one  piece  of  his  armour  was  taken  from 
him  and  cast  upon  the  ground. 

As  each  piece  was  so  cast  down  the  heralds  cried  aloud  the 
reason  for  its  removal.  "  This  is  the  helmet  of  a  disloyal 
and  miscreant  knight !  "  they  cried;  "  we  cast  it  away,  for 


ii2  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

it  has  sheltered  traitorous  eyes."  Or  again,  "  We  take  thy 
gauntlet,  for  it  has  covered  a  corrupt  hand/'  and  so  with 
each  piece.  Then  the  knight's  sword  was  broken  over  his 
head,  his  spurs  were  hacked  from  his  heels,  and  at  last  he 
stood  before  the  eyes  of  the  whole  congregation,  bare  of 
all  arms  and  armour. 

After  this  a  basin  of  gold  or  silver  full  of  water  was 
brought,  and  the  heralds  cried  aloud,  "  What  is  this  knight's 
name  ?  " 

The  pursuivants  answered,  giving  his  real  name,  whereupon 
the  king-at-arms  replied,  "  That  is  not  true.  For  he  is  a  mis- 
creant and  false  traitor  and  one  who  has  broken  the  ordinance 
of  knighthood." 

The  priests  then  spoke.  "  Let  us  give  him  his  right  name/' 
they  said.  And  the  heralds  sounded  their  trumpets  and 
cried  aloud,  "  What  shall  be  done  with  him  ?  " 

Then  the  king  replied.  "  Let  him  be  with  dishonour  and 
shame  banished  my  kingdom  as  a  vile  and  infamous  man 
that  hath  done  offence  against  the  honour  of  knighthood/' 
When  the  king  had  spoken  the  heralds  cast  the  water  on 
the  degraded  knight's  face,  as  though  he  were  baptized  anew, 
and  cried,  *'  Henceforth  thou  shalt  be  called  by  thy  right 
name — Traitor. ' ' 

Then  the  king,  with  twelve  knights,  put  on  mourning 
garments  in  token  of  sorrow,  and  coming  to  the  degraded 
knight  they  put  a  rope  round  his  neck,  and  threw  him  from 
the  stage,  not  by  the  steps  by  which  he  had  honourably 
climbed  up  but  over  the  edge.  Finally,  with  every  imagin- 
able insult  and  ignominy  he  was  led  to  the  altar.  There, 
while  he  lay  grovelling  on  the  ground  a  Psalm  full 
of  curses  was  read  over  him.  Then  all  men  turned 
from  him,  and  left  him  for  ever  alone  with  his  misery  and 
degradation. 

Thus  were  the  unworthy  thrust  out  from  the  great  and 
noble  brotherhood  of  knights. 


KNIGHTHOOD  AND  THE  CHURCH  113 

In  days  when  books  were  few,  when  few  gentlemen  even 
outside  the  monasteries  could  read  or  write,  when  therefore 
they  had  little  occupation  for  their  minds,  and  when  occupa- 
tion for  their  hands  was  denied  them,  the  effects  of  the  train- 
ing of  chivalry  on  the  manhood  of  the  times  was  great.  It 
taught  them,  if  fight  they  must,  to  fight  for  something  more 
than  mere  lust  of  blood  and  plunder.  It  held  before  them 
great  ideals,  and  if  few  attained  to  them,  many  were  at  least 
lifted  above  the  brutal  slough  of  utter  selfishness. 

With  the  Truce  of  God  the  Church  tried  to  curb  the  fighting 
instinct  of  the  feudal  lords :  with  chivalry  it  tried  to  consecrate 
it.  The  latter  was  less  difficult  and  more  successful.  Under 
the  influence  of  the  chivalric  ideals  western  Europe  became 
flooded  with  a  soldier  aristocracy,  embued  with  a  passionate 
devotion  for  the  Church,  overflowing  with  a  romantic  and 
sublime  enthusiasm  seeking  some  adequate  outlet  This 
outlet  the  Church  also  was  to  supply. 


CHAPTER  XXIII 
THE   BEGINNING   OF  THE  CRUSADES 

Pilgrimages  to  the  Holy  Land 

WE  to  whom  the  story  of  Christ  has  been  familiar  from  earliest 
childhood  can  hardly  realize  with  what  force  that  story 
struck  upon  the  hearts  of  the  heathen  peoples  of  Europe  when 
first  they  heard  it.  They  were  fierce  and  savage  men  given 
over  to  war  and  bloodshed.  And  when  they  were  told  of 
the  gentle  Christ  who  not  only  loved  his  fellows  but  gave 
his  life  for  them,  their  simple  savage  hearts  were  filled  with 
amazement  and  adoration.  With  their  wonder  there  grew 
up  an  intense  desire  to  see  for  themselves  the  spot  on  earth 
where  that  marvellous  story  had  been  unfolded.  So  great 

H 


H4  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

grew  that  desire  that  in  spite  of  all  difficulties  and  dangers 
many  set  out  to  visit  the  Holy  Land.  Even  in  very  early 
times,  from  the  islands  of  the  sea,  from  the  forests  of  Ger- 
many, from  the  scattered  villages  of  France,  from  the  moun- 
tains of  Italy,  from  every  corner  of  Europe  which  Christian 
teachers  had  reached,  pilgrims  set  forth. 

To-day  the  journey  is  easy,  safe,  and  rapid.  Then  it  was 
slow,  difficult,  and  dangerous.  To-day  the  journey  is  an 
affair  of  days.  Then  it  was  one  of  months  and  even  years, 
and  a  man  who  set  forth  on  a  pilgrimage  to  Jerusalem  said 
farewell  to  his  dear  ones  as  to  those  he  might  never  see  again. 
Many  never  returned:  and  some,  indeed,  set  forth  in  such 
passionate  exaltation  that  they  prayed  God  to  grant  them 
the  blessing  of  death  in  the  holy  place. 

Those  who  did  return  brought  with  them  a  kind  of  halo 
of  saint  ship.  Their  friends  regarded  them  with  veneration, 
for  their  feet  had  trodden  the  paths  over  which  Christ 
Himself  had  passed,  they  had  knelt  at  the  Holy  Sepulchre 
and  stood  upon  the  Mount  of  Olives.  It  seemed  as  if 
something  of  holiness  must  cling  even  to  their  garments, 
and  pilgrims  kept  carefully  the  clothes  they  had  worn  on 
entering  into  Jerusalem,  so  that  they  might  be  buried  in 
them. 

In  time  a  pilgrimage  to  the  Holy  Land  became  a  sort  of  act 
of  grace,  and  the  mere  going  there  made  a  man  clean  of  his 
sins  however  black  they  had  been.  So  year  by  year  the 
stream  of  pilgrims  increased.  Kings  and  emperors,  princes 
and  princessess,  joined  the  throng.  Splendid  Christian 
churches  were  built  in  Jerusalem,  a  Patriarch  or  chief  bishop 
of  Jerusalem  was  appointed,  and  man}^  Christians  took  up 
their  abode  there. 

While  Palestine  still  formed  part  of  the  Eastern  Empire 
pilgrims  came  and  went  in  peace.  But  in  637  it  was  con- 
quered by  the  Mohammedans.  This,  however,  hardly 
checked  the  flow  of  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  City.  For  to  the 


THE  TURKS  CONQUER  PALESTINE          115 

Mohammedan  Christ  was  a  prophet,  one  less  great  indeed 
than  Mohammed,  but  still  a  prophet.  The  Christians  were, 
it  is  true,  forbidden  to  build  any  more  churches,  were  ordered 
to  remove  the  crosses  from  those  already  built,  and  to  cease 
the  ringing  of  bells.  They  were  forbidden  also  to  carry 
weapons  or  ride  on  horses,  and  were  forced  to  wear  a  dis- 
tinctive dress.  Otherwise  they  were  left  in  peace  to  worship 
as  they  chose. 

So  for  more  than  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  under 
Moslim  rule  Christian  pilgrims  still  thronged  to  Palestine. 
There  were,  of  course,  constant  dangers  from  robbers  and 
other  evil-doers  by  the  way.  At  times,  too,  there  were  sudden 
waves  of  persecution  and  oppression,  but  for  the  most 
part  pilgrims  came  and  went  in  peace. 

Captured  by  the  Turks 

At  length,  however,  in  the  first  half  of  the  eleventh 
century  a  new  and  terrible  enemy  appeared.  These  were 
the  Turks.  Like  so  many  other  invaders  of  Europe  the 
Turks  came  from  the  East.  They  were  fierce  and  cruel, 
and  being  converted  to  Mohammedanism  they  were  filled 
with  a  savage  zeal  for  their  faith.  In  conquering  hordes 
they  swept  through  Persia  and  enthroned  one  of  their 
leaders  as  king.  Soon  Palestine  also  fell  before  them,  and 
the  streets  of  Jerusalem  flowed  red  with  the  blood  of  Chris-  1076 
tians.  The  holy  places  were  profaned,  the  most  solemn 
sacraments  of  the  Church  were  made  a  cause  of  scornful 
laughter,  while  the  aged  Patriarch  was  dragged  through  the 
streets  by  the  hair  of  his  head,  and  cast  into  a  loathsome 
dungeon,  there  to  languish  until  a  heavy  ransom  should  be 
paid  for  his  release. 

The  Christians  who  escaped  death  or  imprisonment  fled 
back  to  Europe.  Here  they  spread  abroad  the  tale  of  woe 
and  desecration  until  all  Europe  was  shaken  with  wrath 
against  the  infidel. 


n6  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Peter  the  Hermit  and  Urban  II 

Among  those  who  returned  was  a  pilgrim  named  Peter 
the  Hermit.  Much  of  the  story  of  Peter  the  Hermit  is  now 
looked  upon  as  mere  legend.  It  has  even  been  said  that  he 
never  visited  Jerusalem  at  all.  But  whether  that  is  so  or 
not  he  undoubtedly  helped  to  preach  the  first  Crusade. 
He  was  a  thin  and  wiry  little  man,  and  utterly  insignificant 
save  for  his  eyes,  which  burned  with  an  almost  mad  en- 
thusiasm. He  had,  too,  a  marvellous  power  of  speech. 
And  as  he  passed  through  Europe  riding  upon  an  ass,  clad 
in  a  rough  hair  shirt,  his  head  and  feet  bare,  and  carrying 
a  crucifix  in  his  hand,  people  flocked  to  hear  him. 

And  wherever  he  spoke  men  felt  their  hearts  uplifted  by 
his  glowing  words,  felt  themselves  impelled  to  fight  in  the 
name  of  God.  They  soon  looked  upon  him  as  a  saint,  and 
were  happy  if  they  might  touch  his  robe  or  even  the  ass  upon 
which  he  rode.  So  from  place  to  place  they  followed  him, 
hanging  on  his  words,  weeping  at  the  pictures  which  he  drew 
of  the  miseries  endured  by  the  faithful. 

But  alone  Peter  could  have  done  little.  A  poor  priest 
might  indeed  arouse  the  enthusiasm  of  the  people.  It  needed 
a  greater  power  than  his  to  direct  that  enthusiasm.  That 
greater  power  was  ready  to  hand. 

The  Eastern  Empire  had  long  been  in  a  state  of  feebleness 
and  decay.  Now  the  emperor,  Alexius  Comnenus,  saw  with 
dismay  territory  after  territory  being  reft  from  him  by  the 
infidel  Turks,  whose  standards  were  planted  almost  within 
sight  of  the  towers  of  Constantinople.  Of  himself  he  knew 
not  how  to  stay  their  conquering  march,  so  he  sent  messengers 
1088-  to  the  pope,  Urban  II,  begging  him  for  help. 

The  pope  was  not  unwilling  to  listen  to  him,  for  he,  too, 
was  eager  to  drive  the  Turks  back  to  their  Asian  deserts, 
and  free  the  Holy  Land  from  their  oppression.  So  he  called 
the  people  together  to  a  conference  at  Piacenza  in  Italy. 


URBAN  PREACHES  THE  FIRST  CRUSADE     117 

But  although  an  immense  crowd  gathered  to  listen  to  him 
no  decision  was  come  to.  It  was  not  in  Italy  but  in  France, 
the  true  son  of  the  Church,  that  the  first  action  was  to  be 
taken ;  and  crossing  the  Alps  the  pope  held  another  con- 
ference at  Clermont.  1095 

Conference  of  Clermont 

Here  such  an  immense  crowd  gathered  that  no  room  could 
be  found  for  them  in  the  town,  and  winter  though  it  was,  a 
vast  city  of  tents  sprang  up  all  around.  No  building  was 
large  enough  to  contain  the  vast  assemblage,  and  the  con- 
ference was  held  in  the  open  air.  The  pope,  clad  in  gorgeous 
robes,  and  surrounded  by  his  cardinals,  sat  upon  a  throne 
erected  in  the  market-place.  And  when  he  rose  to  speak 
deep  silence  fell  upon  the  gathered  thousands.  Urban  was  a 
Frenchman,  and  he  spoke  not  in  Latin,  the  language  of  the 
learned  and  the  Church,  but  in  French,  so  that  even  the 
humblest  who  heard  him  could  understand. 

As  the  burning  words  of  the  great  pontiff  fell  upon  their 
ears  the  people  wept  and  cried  aloud,  and  their  hearts 
glowed  within  them.  Urban  pictured  to  them  the  fury 
and  the  pride  of  the  infidel,  he  reminded  them  of  the  great 
and  glorious  deeds  of  Charles  the  Hammer  and  of  Charle- 
magne, and  bade  them  go  forth  as  they  did  against  the  foe. 
He  bade  them  cease  from  warring  against  each  other,  and 
turn  their  swords  upon  the  despoilers  of  the  holy  places. 

11  Let  all  hatred  depart  from  among  you,"  he  cried. 
"  Let  your  strife  cease,  let  war  be  no  more.  Enter  upon  the 
path  which  leads  to  the  Holy  Sepulchre,  wrest  the  land  from 
the  people  of  sin,  and  make  it  your  own.  For  this  spot  the 
Saviour  of  mankind  has  made  glorious  by  His  birth,  has  made 
beautiful  by  His  life,  has  made  holy  by  His  passion  and  re- 
deemed by  His  death.  Take,  therefore,  this  journey  eagerly 
for  the  remission  of  your  sins,  sure  of  the  reward  of  eternal 
glory  in  the  kingdom  of  heaven." 


n8  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

And  when  the  pope  had  ceased  speaking  all  the  people 
cried  out,  "  God  wills  it !  God  wills  it !  " 

Then  with  frenzied  eagerness  they  crowded  round  the 
pope  to  receive  at  his  hands  the  cross  which  was  to  be  their 
badge  as  soldiers  of  Christ.  From  this  badge  the  expeditions 
which,  during  nearly  two  hundred  years,  were  to  change  the 
face  of  Europe  took  their  name  of  Crusades.  A  new  word 
was  thus  given  to  language,  and  now  any  enthusiastic  cam- 
paign against  evil  we  call  a  crusade. 

With  the  Crusades  something  new  was  brought  into  the 
idea  of  war.  First,  there  was  the  idea  of  God.  For  every 
man  who  took  the  cross  felt  that  he  had  enlisted  under  the 
banner  of  God  Himself.  Secondly,  there  was  the  idea  of 
combat  for  a  noble  and  unselfish  end.  Hitherto  men  had 
waged  war  for  selfish  ends  and  personal  gain.  But  the  Cru- 
sader sallied  forth  not  to  add  broad  acres  to  his  land  but  to 
fight  for  the  honour  of  God,  and  that  the  poor  and  unarmed 
pilgrim  might  visit  the  Holy  Land  in  safety  and  peace. 
Thirdly,  there  was  an  element  of  freedom  introduced.  For 
the  Crusader  went  forth,  not  at  the  command  of  his  overlord 
to  fight  because  he  was  bound  by  oath  to  follow  his  lord 
when  he  called — he  went  of  his  own  will,  to  fight  in  a  cause 
of  his  own  choosing. 

There  were,  of  course,  many  who  did  not  take  the  cross  in 
this  spirit  of  sacrifice  or  devotion.  Some  went  merely  for 
the  love  of  adventure,  some  in  the  hope  of  enriching  them- 
selves through  plunder  or  trade.  Others,  with  few  or  no 
lands  -at  home,  went  in  the  hope  of  founding  principalities 
abroad.  Criminals  went  to  escape  justice,  debtors  to  escape 
payment  of  their  debts,  for  the  pope  announced  that  every 
man  who  took  the  cross  was  free  of  his  debts  until  his  return. 
But  although  the  reasons  which  men  had  for  taking  the 
cross  were  many  and  varied,  the  moving  spirit,  the  one 
which  overbalanced  all  others,  was  one  of  religious  de- 
votion and  sacrifice 


THE  FIRST  CRUSADE  119 

Never  before  had  a  war  been  undertaken  by  the  people  of 
Europe  in  such  a  spirit.  Chivalry,  it  is  true,  had  already 
given  to  knighthood  something  of  a  holy  character,  and  had 
set  before  the  true  knight  ideals  other  than  those  of  mere 
plunder  and  bloodshed.  But  even  so  the  influence  of  re- 
ligion had  been  but  little  felt  amidst  the  violence  and  blood- 
shed of  feudal  wars.  Even  the  romantic  knight  errant  had 
fought  for  gain,  and  had  been  willing  to  sell  his  sword  to  the 
highest  bidder. 

The  Early  Crusades 

.  The  Crusaders  did  not  constitute  an  army  in  our  sense  of 
the  word.  They  were  merely  a  conglomeration  of  armed  and 
unarmed  bands  who  travelled  together  towards  the  Holy 
Land.  They  were  drawn  from  every  country  of  western 
Europe,  but  for  no  country  was  the  first  Crusade  a  national 
enterprise.  Many  Frenchmen  it  is  true  joined  the  expedi- 
tion, for  these  romantic  adventures  appealed  to  the  French 
more  than  to  any  other  nation  in  Europe,  and  the  Cru- 
sades had  more  effect  on  the  national  growth  of  France 
than  on  that  of  any  other  nation.  But  in  no  sense  was  the 
first  Crusade  a  national  enterprise,  and  no  king  took  part 
in  it. 

At  the  time  of  the  first  Crusade  Philip  I,  the  fourth  king 
of  the  Capet ian  dynasty,  was  on  the  throne  of  France,  and 
like  those  of  his  line  who  had  gone  before  him  he  had  little 
power,  and  no  taste  for  great  adventures.  William  the  Red, 
who  had  small  care  for  religion,  ruled  in  England.  Henry 
IV,  emperor  of  Germany,  was  under  the  ban  of  the  Church, 
and  with  the  whole  Empire  in  confusion  it  was  not  wonderful 
that  neither  the  emperor  nor  any  great  German  prince  took 
part  in  the  expedition. 

The  soldiers  from  any  one  country  did  not  march  under  a 
national  leader.  Neither  was  there  any  commander-in- 
chief.  There  was  no  discipline,  no  commissariat,  nothing, 


120  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

in  fact,  which  goes  to  make  an  army  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  word. 

Only  a  wonderful  faith  and  enthusiasm  could  have  set  such 
an  army  in  motion.  Only  wonderful  faith  and  ignorance 
could  believe  in  its  success.  The  Crusades  did  not  succeed, 
and  the  story  of  them  is  the  story  of  one  of  the  most  sublime 
and  picturesque  failures  in  all  history.  But  the  story  of  the 
Crusades  themselves  hardly  belongs  to  European  history.  It 
is  the  effect  upon  Europe  which  matters  chiefly,  and  the 
fact  of  success  or  failure  made  little  difference  to  this  effect, 
which  was  very  great. 


CHAPTER  XXIV 

THE  CRUSADES:  THE  CHRISTIAN 
KINGDOM  OF  JERUSALEM  — THE 
FOUNDING  OF  THE  GREAT  ORDERS 
OF  KNIGHTHOOD 

IT  was  not  until  the  autumn  of  1096  that  the  first  great 
Crusading  army  set  out,  and  it  did  not  reach  Jerusalem  until 
June  1099,  nearly  three  years  later.  It  had  indeed  been 
preceded  by  an  unarmed  and  motley  crowd  under  Peter 
the  Hermit  and  Walter  the  Penniless.  But  these  nearly  all 
died  of  hunger  and  disease,  or  by  the  swords  of  the  enemy, 
long  before  they  reached  Palestine. 

Jerusalem  yielded  quickly  to  the  Crusaders,  and  a  terrible 
slaughter  of  the  unbelievers  took  place.  The  streets  ran 
red  with  blood,  and  were  piled  high  with  dead.  Then,  their 
vengeance  satisfied,  the  Christian  knights  put  off  their 
blood-stained  armour,  and  dressed  in  white  robes,  carrying 
palm  branches  in  their  hands,  marched  to  the  Church  of 


THE  KINGDOM  OF  JERUSALEM  121 

the  Holy  Sepulchre  to  give  thanks  to  God  for  their  great 
victory. 

Kingdom  of  Jerusalem 

A  Christian  monarchy  was  then  established  in  Jerusalem, 
and  Godfrey  of  Bouillon,  one  of  the  bravest  and  wisest  of  the 
Crusaders,  was  chosen  king.     But  he  refused   to   take  the  1099- 
regal  title,  or  to  wear  a  crown  of  gold  in  the  city  where  the  1 
Saviour  of  the  world  had  worn  a  crown  of  thorns.     He  called 
himself  merely  baron  and  defender  of  the  Holy  Sepulchre. 
Having  enthroned  their  king,  and  leaving  with  him  a  few 
hundred  knights  to  keep  his  kingdom  from  again  falling  into 
the  hands  of  the  Turks,  most  of  the  Crusaders  took  their  way 
home  again.* 

The  new  kingdom  of  Jerusalem  was  modelled  upon  the 
feudal  states  of  western  Europe.  To  set  up  such  a  kingdom 
in  the  midst  of  enemies,  and  so  far  away  from  Christian 
aid  that  months  must  elapse  before  a  cry  for  help  could  be 
answered,  was  a  wonderful  act  of  faith.  Yet  as  long  as  the 
Crusades  lasted  the  Christian  kingdom  continued,  although 
at  times  it  was  little  more  than  a  name.  It  was  perpetually 
in  a  state  of  siege.  For  although  the  Crusaders  might, 
from  time  to  time,  come  in  numbers  large  enough  to  defeat 
the  Turks,  they  never  remained  in  numbers  large  enough 
to  hold  the  country  securely.  The  Christian  kingdom, 
therefore,  depended  for  its  existence  chiefly  on  two  powerful 
orders  of  knighthood  to  which  the  Crusades  gave  rise,  the 
orders  of  the  Knights  of  St.  John  and  the  Knights  Templars. 

Knights  of  St.  John  or  Hospitallers 

The  Crusades  offered  many  opportunities  for  the  develop- 
ment of  chivalry,  and  of  the  spirit  of  devotion.  This  de- 
votion showed  itself  in  a  new  way,  and  brought  still  another 
element  into  war.  This  new  element  was  chivalry  to  the 

*  See  map,  p.  63. 


122  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

wounded.  Hitherto  men  had  thought  little  of  the  sufferings 
of  those  who  fell  in  battle.  No  knight,  at  least,  would  have 
thought  of  giving  his  life  to  tend  the  sick.  The  knight's 
business  was  to  fight.  Yet  now  there  arose  an  order  of 
knighthood  the  members  of  which  gave  their  lives  to  the 
nursing  of  the  sick  and  wounded. 

Already  some  years  before  the  Crusaders  took  Jerusalem 
an  Italian  merchant  had  founded  a  hospital  there  for  the 
benefit  of  poor  and  sick  pilgrims.  It  was  not  indeed  a  hos- 
pital in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word,  but  rather  a  guest- 
house and  place  of  rest  for  pilgrims.  The  word  comes  from 
the  Latin  hospitium,  the  place  where  in  a  Roman  house  the 
guests  were  received. 

In  this  hospital  many  wounded  Crusaders  found  a  refuge, 
and  one  of  Godfrey's  first  actions  after  he  became  king  was  to 
visit  the  hospital.  He  was  so  touched  by  what  he  saw  there 
that  he  presented  his  estates  in  Brabant  to  the  hospital. 
Many  of  his  knights  following  his  example  gave  money  and 
lands  to  it,  and  even  joined  the  ranks  of  its  servers.  Very 
soon  the  abbot  of  the  house  proposed  that  they  should  form 
a  community,  and  thus  the  order  of  the  Knights  of  St. 
John  was  founded. 

The  members  of  this  order  took  a  threefold  vow  of  celibacy, 
poverty,  and  obedience.  They  were  both  monks  and  knights. 
Their  life  was  henceforth  to  be  spent  not  in  the  causing  but 
in  the  binding  up  of  wounds,  and  they  took  as  a  habit  a  plain 
black  robe  marked  with  a  white  cross  of  eight  points 

Before  long,  however,  this  peaceful  order  changed  into  a 
militaiy  one.  For  it  was  hard  for  men  who  had  been  fighters 
all  their  lives  suddenly  to  transform  into  careful  nurses.  So 
the  knights  took  a  new  oath  binding  themselves  to  shed  the 
last  drop  of  their  blood  in  the  defence  01  their  faith,  but  never 
1120  under  any  circumstances  to  draw  sword  in  any  other  cause. 
They  were  also  now  divided  into  three  classes,  nobility, 
clergy,  and  serving  brothers. 


KNIGHTS  OF  ST.  JOHN  AND  TEMPLARS      123 

Into  the  first  class  only  he  could  enter  who  could  show 
that  his  family  had  for  two  generations  at  least  been  noble, 
arid  the  highest  of  every  land  became  eager  to  send  their 
sons  to  the  Hospital  of  St.  John  to  receive  their  knightly 
training.  But  although  the  order  became  a  military  one,  the 
motive  which  had  originally  inspired  it  was  not  forgotten. 
The  care  of  the  wounded  was  still  their  first  duty,  and  all 
over  the  world  they  became  known  as  the  Hospitallers. 

The  order  quickly  became  wealthy.  For  every  noble 
who  joined  its  ranks,  unable  because  of  his  vow  of  poverty  to 
possess  wealth  himself,  gave  all  he  had  to  the  order.  Many 
others,  in  gratitude  for  restored  health,  bestowed  riches  upon 
it,  others  again,  in  penance  for  their  sins,  bequeathed  to  it 
lands  and  manor  houses. 

With  this  wealth  the  order  built  hospitals  in  every  part 
frequented  by  pilgrims  or  Crusaders.  They  bought  fleets  of 
ships,  and  owned  whole  towns,  and  at  length  became  so 
powerful  that  even  kings  began  to  fear  them,  and  be  jealous 
of  their  wealth  and  power. 

Knights  Templars 

A  little  later  than  the  order  of  St.  John  another  order  of 
monkish  knights,  the  order  of  the  Knights  Templars,  was 
founded.  They  devoted  themselves  not  to  the  tending  of 
the  sick  but  to  protecting  unarmed  pilgrims  on  their  way  to 
the  Holy  Land,  and  were  first  known  as  the  Poor  Soldiers  of 
Christ.  But  after  they  were  given  a  house  near  the  Temple  of 
Solomon,  they  became  known  as  the  Knights  of  the  Temple. 
They  took  the  same  monkish  vows  as  the  Hospitallers, 
and  wore  a  white  robe  marked  with  a  red  cross.  From  this 
they  were  also  given  the  name  of  Red  Cross  Knights.  They 
were,  it  was  said,  "  Lions  in  war,  lambs  in  the  house,  fierce 
and  unforgiving  to  the  foes  of  Christ,  but  kind  and  gracious 
to  all  Christians." 

Like  the  Hospitallers  the  Knights  Templars  soon  became 


124  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

rich.  Soon,  indeed,  they  far  surpassed  the  earlier  order  in 
wealth,  and  forgetting  that  their  first  duty  was  to  serve  they 
became  the  most  insolent  and  proud  of  all  the  orders  of 
knighthood,  and  also  the  most  avaricious.  The  name  of 
Templar,  indeed,  almost  became  a  synonym  for  greed  and 
pride. 

Long  after  the  Crusades  were  over  both  these  orders  of 
knighthood  continued  to  exist.  But  early  in  the  fourteenth 
century  the  Templars  were  accused  of  heresy  and  all  manner 
of  evil  living,  and  were  crushed  out  of  existence  with  great 
1307  cruelty  by  Philip  IV  of  France.  The  history  of  the  Hos- 
pitallers was  much  longer  than  that  of  the  Templars,  con- 
tinuing until  disbanded  by  Napoleon  on  his  way  to  Egypt  in 
1798.  With  that  the  history  of  the  order  really  ends,  but 
many  attempts  were  made  to  reconstitute  it.  Out  of  one 
of  these  attempts  has  grown  the  St.  John  Ambulance 
Association,  whose  special  care  is  for  the  wounded  in  war, 
thus  carrying  on  the  first  ideals  of  the  parent  society, 
founded  more  than  eight  hundred  years  ago. 

The  Teutonic  Order 

In  the  time  of  the  third  Crusade  another  similar  order 
was  founded,  and  as  the  members  were  chiefly  German  it 
became  known  as  the  Teutonic  Order.  They  took  as  their 
habit  a  white  robe  with  a  black  cross,  and  like  the  order  of 
St.  John,  this  order  had  its  beginnings  in  a  hospital  founded 
by  some  German  merchants.  Like  the  other  similar  orders, 
it  soon  became  a  great  military  and  trading  organization, 
with  fleets  and  lands,  and  almost  regal  power.  But  the 
Teutonic  Knights  played  a  much  greater  part  in  the  ex- 
pansion of  Germany  than  in  the  conquest  of  Palestine. 
Their  presence  had  little  influence  on  the  Latin  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem,  whereas  without  the  support  of  the  Hospitallers 
and  the  Templars  it  could  not  have  continued  to  exist. 


THE  THIRD  AND  FOURTH  CRUSADES        125 


CHAPTER  XXV 

THE   CRUSADES  :  THE   LATIN   EMPIRE 
OF  CONSTANTINOPLE 

THE  second  Crusade  set  out  about  fifty  years  after  the  first.  1147- 
Since  Urban  had   preached  the    first   enthusiasm   for  the  1149 
Holy  War  had  spread  so  that  even  sovereign  rulers  had  be- 
come infected  by  it,  and  now  Louis  VII,  king  of  France,  and 
Conrad  III,  emperor  of  Germany,  became  the  leaders  of  the 
new  venture.     But  this  Crusade  accomplished  nothing. 

The  Third  Crusade 

The  third  Crusade  was  called  forth  by  the  recapture  of  1189_ 
both  Acre  and  Jerusalem  by  the  Turks.  This  time  three  1192 
kings  led  the  armies,  Richard  Coeur  de  Lion,  king  of  England  ; 
Philip  II,  king  of  France  ;  and  Frederick  Red  Beard,  or 
Barbarossa,  emperor  of  Germany.  Frederick,  however,  died 
long  before  he  reached  the  Holy  Land.  Philip  and  Richard 
went  on,  and  after  a  siege  of  nearly  two  years,  they  recovered 
possession  of  Acre.  Then  Philip  and  Richard  quarrelled,  and 
Philip  went  home.  Richard  lingered  on  in  Palestine,  but 
he  could  not  regain  possession  of  Jerusalem,  and  at  length, 
after  signing  a  truce  of  three  years  with  the  Sultan,  he,  too, 
returned  home. 

Fourth  Crusade 

The  fourth  Crusade  had  far  more  effect  on  Europe  than  on  1202- 
Palestine.     For  instead  of  going  to  Jerusalem  the  Crusaders  1204 
turned  aside  and  took  Constantinople. 

Isaac  II,  a  weak  and  degenerate  emperor,  had  been 
deposed  and  blinded  by  his  brother  Alexius,  who  caused 
.himself  to  be  crowned  as  Alexius  III.  But  Isaac's  son,  a 


126  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

boy  of  twelve,  also  named  Alexius,  escaped  from  Constanti- 
nople, fled  to  Italy,  and  there  and  in  other  European  states 
begged  for  help  against  the  usurper.  He  received  it  at  last 
from  the  Crusaders  gathered  to  fight  for  the  city  of  God. 
-  These  Crusaders  had  already  turned  from  their  first  pur- 
pose, and  had  helped  the  Venetians  to  recover  the  City  of 
Zara  which  had  revolted  from  the  Republic  of  Venice,  and 
placed  itself  under  the  protection  of  the  king  of  Hungary. 
They  had  done  this,  too,  in  spite  of  the  thunders  of  the  pope, 
who  forbade  them  to  touch  the  city.  For  the  king  of  Hun- 
gary had  taken  the  cross,  "  and  he  who  attacked  a  city 
belonging  to  him  made  himself  an  enemy  of  the  Church," 
said  the  pope. 

1202  By  the  time  Zara  was  taken  it  was  too  late  in  the  year  to 
go  on  to  Palestine,  so  the  Crusaders  passed  the  winter  there. 
And  here  came  young  Alexius  to  entreat  their  aid.  In 
return  he  promised  to  pay  a  large  sum  of  money,  and  in  his 
own  and  his  father's  name,  swore  to  put  an  end  to  the  di- 
vision between  the  Greek  and  the  Roman  Church,  and  bring 
the  whole  Eastern  Empire  under  the  sway  of  the  pope. 
That,  surely,  thought  the  Crusaders,  would  be  a  righteous 
deed,  and  in  spite  of  some  opposition  among  their  ranks, 
they  promised  Alexius  the  help  he  craved. 

The  Crusaders  attack  Constantinople 

So  in  April  1203  the  Crusaders  set  sail.  A  great  company 
of  Venetians  joined  them  also,  and  Constantinople  was 
attacked  both  by  land  and  sea,  and  the  great  city  which  had 
so  often  withstood  the  onslaught  of  heathen  and  infidel, 
fell  before  the  host  of  Christian  brigands.  Alexius  fled,  the 
feeble  and  now  blind  emperor  Isaac  was  restored  to  the 
throne  with  his  son  Alexius  IV  as  co-emperor. 

But  two  such  emperors,  one  blind  and  decrepit,  the  other 
young  and  utterly  frivolous,  were  ill-fitted  to  rule  the  Empire 
in  troublous  times.  When  Alexius  tried  to  fulfil  his  promise 


THE  CRUSADERS  TAKE  CONSTANTINOPLE    127 

to  bring  the  Empire  under  the  sway  of  the  pope  the  people 
rose  in  rebellion.  During  the  turmoil  the  old  emperor 
Isaac  died,  and  Alexius  also  was  slain,  his  reign  having 
lasted  only  six  months. 

A  new  emperor,  Alexius  V,  was  placed  upon  the  throne, 
but  the  Crusaders  took  up  arms  against  him.  Constanti- 
nople was  sacked  and  burned,  and  Alexius  V  fled  for  his  life. 
Then  from  among  their  own  number  the  Crusaders  chose 
another  emperor,  Baldwin,  Count  of  Flanders.  1204 

In  the  Eastern  Empire  the  feudal  system  was  unknown. 
The  emperors  might  be  despotic  or  corrupt,  but  at  least 
their  subjects  had  not  to  fear  the  rapine  of  their  fellow- 
subjects.  Now  its  Latin  conquerors  endeavoured  to  intro- 
duce the  feudal  system.  The  Empire  was  parcelled  out  among 
them,  and  the  emperor  became  merely  a  feudal  chieftain 
The  Greek  clergy  were  driven  from  their  churches,  and  a  host 
of  priests  and  monks  were  imported  from  Rome  in  order  to 
convert  the  people.  For,  although  the  Greeks  were  Christians, 
because  they  did  not  acknowledge  the  pope  as  head  of  the 
Church,  they  seemed  to  the  narrow-minded  Crusaders  to 
be  infidels,  almost  as  much  as  the  Mohammedans,  and  in 
sore  need  of  conversion. 

But  the  task  of  turning  the  Eastern  Empire  into  a  feudal 
state,  and  the  Greek  Church  into  an  obedient  daughter  of 
Rome,  proved  a  task  too  great  for  the  Latins.  There  was 
no  sympathy  between  the  rulers  and  the  ruled.  The  Greeks 
were  worn  out  arid  effete,  but  their  learning  and  culture 
were  far  beyond  that  of  their  western  conquerors.  Their 
ideas  of  civilization  were  altogether  different.  Yet  for  fifty- 
seven  years  the  Latin  Empire  struggled  on.  Then  one  day, 
with  a  mere  handful  of  soldiers,  a  Greek  general  surprised  1261 
and  took  Constantinople.  The  Frankish  emperor,  Baldwin 
II,  fled  away,  a  Greek  emperor  (Michael  VIII)  was  once 
more  proclaimed,  and  the  Latin  domination  of  the  Eastern. 
Empire  came  to  an  end. 


128  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Fifth  Crusade 

1228-  The  only  Crusade  after  the  third  which  brought  any  relief 
1229  to  pilgrims  to  the  Holy  Land  was  the  fifth.  That,  strange 
to  say,  was  followed,  not  by  the  pope's  blessing  but  by  his 
curse.  For  Frederick  II,  emperor  of  Germany,  who  led  it, 
was  under  the  ban  of  the  Church  when  he  set  out.  That  an 
excommunicated  man  should  dare  to  fight  for  the  Lord's 
Tomb  seemed  a  mockery  and  an  insult,  a  cause  not  for 
rejoicing  but  for  sorrow  and  anger.  Yet  Frederick  succeeded 
where  others  had  failed.  He  fought  little,  but  by  diplomacy 
he  won  a  ten  years'  truce  from  the  sultan,  and  also  the 
assurance  of  a  safe  passage  for  pilgrims  through  Palestine 
to  the  Holy  Places. 

Other  Crusades  followed  but  they  did  little  for  the  cause. 
The  passionate  enthusiasm  which  had  made  the  first  possible 
died  down.  One  by  one  every  town  which  the  Crusaders 
had  conquered  was  again  taken  from  them  by  the  Moham- 
medans until  only  Acre  was  left.  At  length  that,  too,  fell 
before  the  Turks,  and  in  1291  the  Christian  kingdom  of 
Jerusalem  came  to  an  end. 


CHAPTER  XXVI 

THE  EFFECT  OF  THE  CRUSADES— THE 
FALL  OF   CONSTANTINOPLE 

FOR  two  centuries  the  Crusades  had  filled  Europe  with 
unrest.  The  lives  of  millions  of  men  had  been  sacrificed, 
and  in  the  end  the  Holy  Land  remained  in  the  possession 
of  the  unbeliever.  The  Crusaders  had  accomplished  nothing 
of  what  they  had  set  out  to  do.  But  they  had  wrought 
great  changes  in  Europe.  For  one  thing  they  had  caused  a, 


CHANGE  WROUGHT  BY  THE  CRUSADES      129 

redistribution  of  wealth  and  power.  They  had  helped  to 
weaken  the  power  of  the  great  feudal  lords,  and  they  had 
strengthened  that  of  both  kings  and  peoples. 

When  the  great  nobles  wanted  money  to  enable  them  to 
set  out  on  a  Crusade  they  sold  or  mortgaged  their  lands 
and  everything  they  possessed.  To  such  an  extent  was 
this  so  that  King  Richard  of  England  declared  that  he  would 
sell  London  if  he  could  find  a  suitable  purchaser.  In  this 
way  many  great  ^states  changed  hands.  Some  were  bought 
by  churchmen,  thus  the  Church  grew  stronger.  Others 
came  into  the  hands  of  the  kings,  either  by  purchase,  or 
because  the  vassal  to  whom  they  had  been  granted  never 
returned  from  the  Holy  Land,  and  they  naturally  fell  to 
the  king  as  overlord.  Thus  the  kings  became  stronger. 

But  most  of  all  the  people  benefited.  In  return  for  money 
supplied  the  feudal  lords  were  obliged  to  grant  many  privi- 
leges to  the  towns.  The  burghers  began  to  have  new  ideas 
of  freedom,  manufactures  and  commerce  increased,  guilds 
and  corporations  were  founded,  and  soon  became  powerful. 
For  the  mere  equipment  of  the  great  hosts  which  every  now 
and  again  took  their  way  towards  Palestine  necessitated  a. 
certain  amount  of  trade  and  manufacture.  The  trans- 
porting of  these  same  hosts  across  the  seas  encouraged 
shipbuilding.  New  plants  and  fruits,  such  as  lemons, 
apricots,  maize,  and  sugar-cane,  were  introduced  into  Europe, 
through  which  both  agriculture  and  manufactures  were 
given  an  impetus. 

The  villains  and  slaves,  too,  profited.  For  in  the  absence 
of  the  constantly  warring  nobles  they  could  sow  and  reap 
in  peace,  and  life  for  them  became  both  happier  and  easier. 
A  few  also  bought  their  freedom  by  following  their  lord's 
example  and  taking  the  cross.  Everywhere  thus  the  bands 
which  had  bound  society  began  to  loosen,  and  the  great 
gulf  which  had  separated  the  upper  and  the  lower  classes 
began  to  be  bridged. 


130  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

In  the  nobles  themselves  changes  took  place.  They  had 
gone  forth  to  fight  the  infidel,  scorning  him  as  a  barbarian. 
Everywhere  in  the  east,  both  in  the  Eastern  Empire  and  in 
Mohammedan  lands,  they  had  found  a  culture  and  civiliza- 
tion far  greater  than  their  own.  Science,  especially  that 
of  medicine,  was  far  more  advanced  in  the  east  than  in  the 
west.  Even  in  the  science  of  war  the  Crusaders  found  that 
they  had  something  to  learn  from  the  despised  infidel. 
In  the  west  it  had  required  a  knightly  vow  to  make  a  man 
courteous  and  gentle.  Everywhere  in  the  east  the  Crusaders 
found  a  refinement  of  manners  to  them  undreamed  of. 
They  found  a  love  of  art  and  letters,  and  graces  of  life,  of 
which  before  they  had  had  no  conception.  And  although 
they  affected  to  despise  these  things  they  were  not  without 
their  influence. 

Added  to  this  the  mere  act  of  travel  broadened  their  minds. 
Many  who  joined  the  Crusades  had  never  before  left  their 
own  village.  They  had  no  consciousness  of  other  lands  or 
peoples.  Now,  as  for  weeks  they  marched  through  strange 
countries,  their  ideas  of  the  world  became  enlarged.  They 
heard  of  yet  other  lands  far  beyond  Palestine.  The  desire 
to  know  more  of  them  was  awakened  and  a  great  impulse 
was  given  to  the  study  of  geography  and  of  history.  Poetic 
literature,  too,  received  an  impulse,  and  many  of  the  finest 
mediaeval  romances  have  to  do  with  the  story  of  the 
Crusades. 

These  changes  only  came  gradually.  They  were  changes 
which  were  bound  to  come,  and  if  the  Crusades  had  never 
taken  place  they  would  have  come  in  time.  But  the  Cru- 
sades undoubtedly  hastened  that  time. 

The  Ottoman  Turks 

One  other  office  the  Crusades  performed.  That  was 
keeping  the  Turk  out  of  Europe.  For  while  they  were  en- 
gaged with  the  Crusades  they  had  no  energies  to  attack  the 


THE  OTTOMAN  TURKS  ATTACK  EUROPE  131 

Eastern  Empire.  And  when  the  Crusades  came  to  an  end 
the  Empire  of  the  Seljukian  Turks  was  also  tottering  to  its 
fall.  But  its  place  was  soon  taken  by  that  of  the  Ottoman 
Turks,  who  had  been  driven  westward  by  the  great  Gendhis 
Khan  and  his  successors. 

They  were  at  first  only  a  small  tribe  of  pastoral  warriors. 
But  they  increased  rapidly  in  power,  and  before  the  end  of 
the  thirteenth  century  they  had  become  a  menace  to  the 
Eastern  Empire.  Bit  by  bit  they  wrested  from  the  Greeks 
what  little  remained  of  their  possessions  in  Asia,  then  they 
passed  into  Europe. 

On  and  on  they  came,  farther  and  farther  west.  Nothing 
it  seemed  could  stay  their  conquering  march,  and  all  Christian 
Europe  trembled.  Then  once  more  the  pope  called  upon 
Christian  warriors  to  defend  the  Church  of  Christ  against  the 
infidel,  and  the  kings  of  France,  Germany,  and  Hungary, 
uniting  their  forces,  marched  to  check  the  terrible  foe.  But 
at  the  battle  of  Nicopolis  in  Bulgaria  the  Christian  army  was  1396 
cut  to  pieces,  and  the  victorious  foe  vowed  that  he  would 
not  stay  his  march  until  he  had  stabled  his  horses  in  the 
Church  of  St.  Peter  at  Rome. 

Fall  of  Constantinople 

But  before  he  had  time  to  fulfil  his  threat  the  Turk  was 
called  back  to  fight  another  foe  and  defend  his  conquests 
against  the  attacks  of  the  terrible  Mongol,  Tamerlane.  The  1402 
Turks  in  their  turn  went  down  before  this  fierce  conqueror, 
and  the  Ottoman  power  was  humbled  to  the  dust.  But  in  a 
wonderfully  short  time  the  Ottomans  recovered  themselves,  1453 
and  fifty  years  after  their  defeat  by  Tamerlane  they,  for 
the  last  time,  laid  siege  to  Constantinople.  This  time 
the  capital  of  the  Eastern  Empire,  which  had  withstood 
their  onslaughts  for  so  many  hundred  years,  fell.  The  last 
emperor,  named  Constantine,  like  the  founder  of  the 
Eastern  Empire,  died  fighting  for  his  capital,  and  the  great 


132  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

sultan,  Mohammed  II,  rode  in  triumph  into  the  Church  of 
St.  Sophia. 

Thus  the  Crescent  triumphed  over  the  Cross,  and  an  Asi- 
atic and  alien  people  took  their  place  among  the  nations  of 
Europe.  They  held  sway  over  a  huge  territory,  including 
parts  of  what  are  now  Austria,  Hungary,  Russia,  Greece, 
Servia,  Rumania,  and  Bulgaria,  besides  many  other  lesser 
provinces.  From  the  Black  Sea  to  the  Adriatic,  from  the 
Dniester  and  the  Bug  to  the  Mediterranean,  the  Crescent 
flew  victorious.  Added  to  this  the  Ottomans  had  a  great 
Empire  in  Asia  and  Africa,  and  the  Sultan  boasted  "  that  he 
was  master  of  many  kingdoms,  ruler  of  three  continents,  and 
lord  of  two  seas." 

The  Ottoman  Turks  were  the  last  barbarian  tribe  to  settle 
upon  European  soil.  They  did  not  disappear  like  the  Huns, 
they  were  not  driven  forth  like  the  Saracens,  they  have  in  no 
way  become  Europeanized  like  the  Hungarians  or  Magyars, 
they  have  remained  Asiatic  and  alien,  a  blot  upon  the  map 
of  Europe  to  this  day. 


CHAPTER  XXVII 

THE   HOLY   ROMAN   EMPIRE 
STRIFE   WITH   THE   POPES— COMMER- 
CIAL  PROGRESS 

THE  Saxon  line  of  emperors  came  to  an  end  with  Henry  V 
(see  Chapter  XX),  and  under  the  Hohenstaufens  the  bitter 
struggle  between  popes  and  emperors  continued.  Emperors, 
too,  still  strove  after  world  dominion,  while  their  power  over 
Germany  was  yet  unstable. 

At  length  both  Germany  and  Italy  became  divided  into 
two  great  parties.     In  Germany  the  factions  were  known  as 


FREDERICK  I,  BARBAROSSA  133 

Welfs  and  Waiblings,  in  Italy  as  Guelphs  and  Ghibellines. 
The  Welfs  or  Guelphs  were  followers  of  the  pope,  the 
Waiblings  or  Ghibellines  were  followers  of  the  emperor, 
Waibling  being  a  sort  of  surname  given  to  the  Hohenstaufens 
from  their  castle  of  that  name. 

Frederick  I,  Barbarossa 

In  the  tremendous  struggle   between  pope  and  emperor 
the  Empire  was  to  succumb,  but  for  a  time  the  inevitable 
end  was  staved  off  by  the  genius  of  a  great  man.     This  was  1152- 
Frederick  I,  Barbarossa.     Strong  and  just,  a  great  statesman  119C 
and  a  great  soldier,  he  was,  perhaps,  the  best  emperor  who 
has  ever  ruled  over  Germany. 

Under  him  once  again  the  warring  states  were  united. 
Even  he  could  not  entirely  put  down  private  warfare  but  he 
greatly  reduced  it,  and  in  the  comparative  peace  the  country 
became  more  prosperous  and  united  than  ever  before.  It 
would  have  been  well  for  Germany  had  Barbarossa  been 
content  with  his  work  there.  But  once  again  the  desire 
for  world  dominion  and  the  fatal  connexion  with  Italy 
brought  ruin. 

The  Normans  were  by  this  time  firmly  established  in  Italy, 
and  the  south  was  thus  practically  lost  to  the  Empire.  In 
the  north  the  great  cities  had  grown  powerful,  and  taking 
advantage  of  the  quarrels  between  pope  and  emperor  had 
wrung  themselves  free  and  formed  republics.  The  em- 
perors' quarrels  with  the  pope  were  bitter  and  frequent,  and 
in  these  struggles  the  popes  sometimes  sought  help  from  the 
Normans,  sometimes  from  the  Lombard  cities.  They 
used  their  spiritual  powers  against  the  emperor  also,  and 
like  some  of  his  predecessors,  Barbarossa  was  excommuni- 
cated. But  the  thunders  of  the  Church  did  not  affect  him 
as  they  had  affected  Henry  IV.  For  Barbarossa  ruled 
Germany  with  a  strong  hand,  and  the  German  bishops  were 
emperor's  men  rather  than  pope's  men.  They  did  homage 


134  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

to  the  emperor  for  their  fiefs,  and  rode  with  his  army. 
Had  the  German  Church  always  been  thus  true  to  the 
emperor  the  fate  of  the  German  Empire  might  have  been 
other  than  it  was. 

Italy  and  the  Empire 

1158-      Soon  after  his  coronation  Frederick  entered  Italy  and  in 
'    several  campaigns  reduced  the  Lombard  cities  to  submission. 
It  was  done  with  not  a  little  cruelty,  Milan  being  razed  to  the 
ground.     He  placed  German  rulers  over  the  cities  and  pro- 
vinces and  laid  upon  the  people  such  a  burden  of  taxes  that  the 
record  of  them  was  called  "  The  book  of  pain  and  mourning." 
Frederick's  first  papal  quarrel  was  with  Adrien  IV,  the 

1157  only  Englishman  who  ever  sat  upon  the  papal  throne.  It 
began  over  a  very  small  matter.  Adrien  wrote  a  letter  to 
Frederick  in  which  he  seemed  to  claim  that  the  Empire  was 
his  (the  pope's)  gift  and  the  emperor  merely  his  vassal. 
At  this  assumption  the  imperial  wrath  blazed  furiously. 
The  pope  was  roused  to  equal  fury,  and  only  his  death  saved 

1159    the  emperor  from  excommunication. 

But  his  death,  far  from  ending  the  quarrel,  only  added 
more  fury  to  it.  For  two  popes  were  now  elected,  the 
emperor's  party  choosing  Victor  IV,  the  pope's  party 
Alexander  III.  Each  pope,  as  soon  as  he  was  enthroned, 
excommunicated  his  rival,  and  Alexander  III  also  excom- 
municated the  emperor. 

Barbarossa  cared  little  for  the  thunders  of  the  Church. 
But  Alexander  was  a  formidable  foe.  It  was  he  who  later 
threatened  Henry  II  of  England  with  excommunication  for 
the  murder  of  Thomas  a  Becket.  Against  such  a  pope  the 
emperor  needed  all  his  strength,  and  soon  his  cause  was 

1164    endangered  by  the  death  of  his  own  pope.     But  nothing 
daunted,  he  elected  another,   Paschal  III,   and  marching 

1167    on  Rome,  he  took  the  city,  and  triumphantly  enthroned  his 
pope  there,  while  Alexander  fled  in  dismay. 


BARBAROSSA'S  POLICY  135 

The  emperor  had  conquered,  but  in  the  very  moment  of 
his  triumph  disaster  overtook  him.  Pestilence  wasted  his 
army,  and  the  Lombard  cities,  joining  hands  with  Pope 
Alexander,  rose  in  revolt.  Frederick  sent  to  Germany  for 
reinforcements,  they  were  refused,  and  in  the  battle  of  1176 
Legnano  he  was  defeated  by  the  Lombards. 

This  battle  was  a  turning  point  in  Frederick's  reign. 
After  it  he  saw  that  it  was  useless  longer  to  struggle  against 
the  growing  spirit  of  freedom  which  had  grown  up  among  the 
cities  of  Italy.  So  he  made  peace  with  the  Lombards,  1177 
keeping  only  a  vague  suzerainty  over  them.  He  also  gave 
up  the  cause  of  the  rival  pope,  and  made  peace  with  Alex- 
ander, who  removed  the  ban  of  excommunication  from  him. 
Even  after  this,  however,  his  dealings  with  the  popes  were 
never  altogether  smooth. 

A  few  years  later  Frederick  made  peace  with  Sicily  also,  H86 
and  arranged  a  marriage  between  his  son  Henry  and  Con- 
stance the  heiress  of  Sicily.  Thus  at  length  Sicily  became 
a  fief  of  the  Empire.  The  pope,  however,  was  ill-pleased 
with  this  last  stroke  of  policy  on  Frederick's  part.  For  with 
Sicily  a  fief  of  the  Empire  he  lost  an  ally  in  his  struggles 
with  the  emperor.  Yet  angry  although  he  was  he  did  not 
renew  the  ban  of  the  Church. 

Three  years  later  Barbarossa  set  out  with  the  third 
Crusade,  and  died  somewhere  in  Asia  Minor.  But  he  had  1190 
impressed  himself  so  thoroughly  on  the  German  people 
that  they  did  not  believe  in  his  death.  So  a  legend  arose 
that  he  was  only  resting  after  his  great  labours,  and  that  he 
would  come  again.  He  sits,  it  is  said,  within  a  cave  in  the 
heart  of  the  Kyffhausen  Mountains,  waiting  till  his  country 
has  need  of  him. 

The  emperors  who  succeeded  Barbarossa  were  all  in- 
volved in  the  same  old  round  of  struggle — with  angry  popes, 
with  rebellious  German  states,  with  revolting  cities  in 
northern  Italy — and  to  all  was  added  the  struggle  to  conquer 


136  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Sicily  securely  for  the  Empire.     At  length,  under  the  weight 
of  all  these  evils  the  Empire  was  crushed  to  the  dust. 

H98-      In  the  days  of  Otto  IV  the  land  was  rilled  with  strife. 

1214  First  Otto  disputed  the  crown  with  Philip  of  Swabia,  and 
after  he  was  accepted  as  emperor,  Frederick  of  Hohen- 
staufen,  king  of  Sicily,  appeared  as  his  rival.  In  this  quarrel 
foreign  nations  also  became  involved,  King  John  of  England 
allying  himself  with  Otto,  and  Philip  of  France  allying 
himself  with  Frederick.  This  was  the  first  international 
war  in  the  history  of  Europe.  It  ended  in  the  triumph  of 

1214    France  at  the  battle  of  Bouvines  (see  Chapter^XXI). 

1215-      Otto  rode  from  the  field  a  fallen  emperor,  and  Frederick 

1250  jj  -took  his  place.  He,  at  first  sustained  by  the  pope,  was 
soon  involved  in  quarrels  with  him.  During  his  reign  four 
popes  ruled  in  Rome,  but  his  bitterest  quarrels  were  with  the 
two  last,  Gregory  IX  and  Innocent  IV.  He  was  excommuni- 
cated more  than  once,  but  he  was  unbending  in  his  defiance, 
and,  to  prove  his  contempt  for  the  pope's  authority,  while 
still  under  the  ban  of  the  Church,  he  insolently  undertook  the 

1228  fifth  Crusade.  Yet  this  was  the  only  one  of  the  later 
Crusades  which  produced  the  result  for  which  it  was 
initiated. 

Frederick  was  brilliant  and  learned,  a  lover  of  science  and 
art,  and  his  ideas  of  statesmanship  were  far  before  his  times. 
But  he  was  far  more  a  Sicilian  than  a  German,  and  during 
his  long  reign  of  thirty-five  years,  although  he  ruled  Sicily 
well,  he  neglected  Germany  and  spent  little  of  his  time 
there.  Indeed,  during  the  last  thirteen  years  of  his  reign 
he  never  crossed  its  borders.  The  German  nobles  taking 
advantage  of  this  neglect  once  more  did  as  they  would, 
and  the  land  was  filled  with  private  wars  and  bloodshed. 
Yet  out  of  this  time  of  confusion  a  great  trade  organization 
arose  in  the  Hanseatic  League. 


GERMAN  TRADE  EXPANSION 


137 


THE  EMPERORS  FROM  HENRY  V 


Henry  V,  1106-1125.  Frederick  of  Hohenstaufen. 


Lothaire  II  of  Saxony, 
1125-1137. 


Conrad  III,       Frederick  of  Swabia. 
1138-1152.  | 

Frederick  I  (Barbarossa), 
1152-1190. 


Henry  VI, 
1190-1197. 

i 

Frederick  II, 
1215-1250. 

I 

Conrad  IV, 
1250-1254. 


Philip, 
1197-1208. 

[Otto  IV,  son  of 
Henry  the  Lion  of 
Saxony,  was  a  rival 
emperor,  1197 -1214.* 
He  was  deposed  after 
the  battle  of  Bouvines.] 


Hanseatic  League 

During  his  reign  Barbarossa  had  greatly  encouraged  the 
towns  with  their  trade  and  commerce,  and  had  made  many 
of  them  free  cities  owning  allegiance  to  none  but  the  emperor. 
Now  these  towns  had  no  mind  to  lose  their  freedom  and  their 
trade  through  the  depredations  of  robber  knights.  So  for 
protection  they  banded  themselves  into  leagues,  of  which  the 
Hanseatic  League  soon  became  the  chief.  It  grew  to  such 
importance  that  all  the  trade  of  the  Baltic,  and  most  of  the 
trade  of  the  North  Sea,  was  soon  in  its  hands.  It  owned 
armies  and  fleets,  and  even  kings  were  forced  to  bow  to  its 
power. 

Much  of  the  trade  of  England  was  carried  on  by  the  Han- 
seatic merchants.  The  English  called  them  Easterlings,  or 
men  from  the  East.  They  were  probably  even  allowed  the 


138  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

privilege  of  coining  English  money.  From  this  we  have  our 
word  sterling,  used  still  in  connexion  with  British  coinage 
to  express  its  genuineness  and  good  quality.  Thus  early 
the  German  people,  as  distinct  from  the  German  nobles, 
showed  their  aptitude  for  peaceful  commerce.  And  once 
again  history  seems  to  show  that  if  the  emperors  had  been 
content  to  forget  their  wild  dream  of  world  dominion,  and 
advance  their  country  in  the  ways  of  peace,  the  fate  of  the 
Empire  might  have  been  very  different.  As  it  was,  because  of 
this  dream  and  the  wars  with  the  Popes  which  were  one  of 
its  consequences,  both  the  House  of  Hohenstaufen  and  the 
Empire  were  brought  to  ruin. 


CHAPTER  XXVIII 

FRANCE:    THE   CAPTIVITY   OF  THE 

POPES— THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE 

HUNDRED   YEARS'  WAR 

UNDER  Philip  Augustus,  France  began  to  take  a  great  place 
among  the  nations  of  Europe  (see  Chapter  XXI).     It  was 
1285-  another  Philip — Philip  IV — who  broke  the  power  o'  the 
pope. 

The  Hohenstaufen  dynasty  had  been  brought  to  utter 
ruin  through  its  constant  and  fierce  struggles  with  the 
popes.  The  popes  had  triumphed.  But  they  had  not  come 
forth  from  the  battle  altogether  unwounded,  and  in  time 
the  papacy  declined  even  as  its  great  rival  the  Empire 
declined. 

The  power  of  the  Hohenstaufens  had  fallen  before  the 
power  of  the  papacy  because  it  had  no  solid  foundation. 
It  was  not  rooted  in  nationality.  But  when  the  papacy 


PHILIP  IV  AND  THE  POPE  139 

came  in  contact  with  the  strong  and  growing  nationality  of 
France  it  fell  beneath  the  yoke. 

During  the  first  half  of  the  thirteenth  century  under  Inno-  1198- 
cent  III  and  his  immediate  successors  the  papal  power  was  at  1216 
its  highest.     Then  the  pope  acted  not  merely  as  the  spiritual 
head  of  all  Christendom  but  as  the  overlord  of  every  temporal 
ruler  and  as  the  supreme  potentate  in  Italy.      Innocent 
interfered  with  the  temporal  affairs  of  Europe  from  Norway 
to  Spain,  from  England  to  Hungary.     Weak  King  John  of 
England  cowered  beneath  his  wrath,  and  even  Philip  Augustus 
of  France,  the  strongest  ruler  in  Europe  at  the  time,  had  to 
bow  to  his  will. 

Merely  by  the  force  of  his  tremendous  claims,  aided  by  the 
visionary  authority  which  still  surrounded  the  name  of  Rome, 
the  pope  compelled  the  submission  of  mighty  kings  and 
princes,  without  drawing  a  sword,  with  indeed  no  army  to 
back  him. 

Boniface  VIII  and  Philip  IV 

But  among  the  growing  nationalities  of  Europe  a  desire 
for  political  independence  of  the  papacy  began  gradually 
to  make  itself  felt.     When,  however,  Boniface  VIII  came  1294- 
to  the  papal  throne  he  was  blind  to  this  fact.     He  was  1303 
formed  rather  to  be  an  emperor  than  a  priest.     No  pope 
ever  made  greater  cla'ms  to  power,  and  with  all  the  arro- 
gance of  his  predecessors  he  plunged  into  strife  with  Philip 
the  Fair  of  France.     It  began  nominally  over  a  question 
of  money. 

As  the  king's  power  increased,  as  his  activities  multiplied, 
he  became  always  more  and  more  in  need  of  money.  But 
financial  science  was  slow  in  developing.  Indeed,  the  whole 
business  of  government,  the  best  and  most  equitable  means 
of  ruling  a  people,  and  binding  it  together  in  common 
interests,  had  still  to  be  learned.  There  was  no  regular 
system  of  taxation,  and  when  a  king  wanted  money  he 


140  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

raised  it  how  he  could,  often  enough  using  vile  and  despotic 
means. 

Now  Philip  IV,  in  want  of  money,  laid  a  tax  upon  the 

clergy.     This  seemed  to  the  pope  a  usurpation  of  his  rights, 

1296  and  he  issued  a  bull  forbidding  the  clergy  to  pay  any  tax 

to  a  temporal  ruler  without  his  consent.     But  Philip  was  not 

to  be  thus  browbeaten,  and  he  replied  by  forbidding  the 

1296  export  of  gold  from  France,  thereby  cutting  off  the  pope's 

revenues  from  French  clergy. 

At  this  the  pope,  proud  although  he  was,  gave  way, 
and  for  a  time  peace  between  the  two  arrogant  rulers  was 
patched  up.  But  the  quarrel  soon  broke  out  again,  this 
time  the  pope  threatening  Philip  with  excommunication. 
Philip,  however,  was  no  German  emperor.  He  publicly 
1302  burned  the  pope's  bull,  sent  him  an  insulting  reply,  and 
called  the  States  General  together. 

This  was  a  great  step  towards  freedom  for  the  people  of 
France.  Ever  since  the  advent  of  the  Capetians  parlia- 
ments had  been  held.  But  they  were  little  more  than 
courts  of  justice,  and  to  them  only  the  nobles  and  clergy  had 
been  called.  Now  Philip  called  to  his  parliament  not  only 
nobles  and  clergy  but  the  third  estate  also,  that  is,  burghers, 
and  deputies  from  the  large  towns  and  cities. 

Philip  was  the  most  absolute  monarch  who  had  ruled  over 
France  up  to  this  time,  and  it  is  possible  that  in  calling  the 
third  estate  to  his  parliament  he  had  no  thought  but  of 
showing  his  own  power.  He  would  show  the  pope  that  he 
could  do  as  he  liked  within  his  own  kingdom,  and  that 
his  people  were  with  him. 

So  he  called  representatives  from  the  towns  to  "  hear, 
receive,  approve,  and  do  what  should  be  commanded  them 
by  the  king."  He  felt  that  for  the  moment  the  support  of 
the  people  was  needed  to  save  him  from  the  fate  which  had 
overtaken  the  German  emperors  who,  without  their  people's 
support,  had  been  crushed  under  the  power  of  the  pope. 


THE  BABYLONISH  CAPTIVITY  141 

He  did  not  foresee  that  beneath  the  power  of  the  people, 
whose  help  he  now  invoked,  the  French  monarchy  would  one 
day  go  down  in  the  dust. 

Babylonish  Captivity 

The  support  which  Philip  expected  from  the  people  he 
received.     Strong  in  their  strength  his  defiance  of  the  pope 
continued,  and  he  even  went  so  far  as  to  make  him  a  prisoner.  1303 
And  when  overcome  with  wrath  and  shame  the  aged  Boniface 
VIII  died,  Philip  found  means  to  have  a  Frenchman  set  upon 
the   papal   throne.     This   pope    of    Philip's    choosing   was 
Clement    V.     He    was    entirely    under    Philip's    influence,  1305- 
and  that  he  should  remain  so  Philip  made  him  take  up  his  1314f 
residence  at  Avignon  instead  of  at  Rome. 

Avignon  was  a  possession  of  the  pope.     It  was,  however, 
surrounded  by  French  territory,  and  during  the  seventy 
years  that  Avignon   remained  the  abode  of  the  popes  the 
policy  of  the  Holy  See  was  directed  by  Frenchmen.     This 
time    came    to   be    known    as    the    Babylonish    Captivity  1306- 
of  the  popes,  and  the  fact  that  such  a  captivity  was  possible  1376 
decreased  to  an  enormous  extent  the  power  of  the  papacy 
over  the  nations  of  Europe. 

From  this  time  the  glory  of  the  papacy  was  at  an  end.  It 
was  a  shock  to  the  world  to  find  that  the  great  pontiff,  who 
claimed  jurisdiction  over  all  princes,  could  be  made  the  ser- 
vant of  one.  A  pope  living  almost  in  France  lost  the  pres- 
tige and  the  glamour  borrowed  from  the  name  of  Rome. 
Nation  after  nation  began  to  realize  its  capability  for  inde- 
pendence, and  became  disinclined  to  recognize  any  power 
beyond  the  limits  of  its  nationality.  The  chief  European 
powers,  after  long  struggles,  had  at  last  won  some  unity  and 
solidarity.  Factions  were  disappearing,  kings  were  becoming 
more  powerful,  and  all  classes  were  growing  more  obedient 
to  them. 

Being  able  to  command  obedience  from  their  own  subjects, 


142  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

kings  and  princes  cared  the  less  for  the  mandates  of  the 
pope.  They  obeyed  him  just  as  far  as  they  wanted  and  no 
farther.  Thus  with  the  birth  of  nationality  the  power  of 
the  pope  in  secular  matters  was  bound  to  decrease.  In 
spiritual  matters,  however,  the  whole  world  still  acknow- 
ledged the  pope  as  supreme. 

Throughout  his  reign  Philip  not  only  combated  the  power 
of  the  pope,  but  also  the  power  of  the  feudal  nobles,  and  with 
terrible  cruelty  he  broke  up  the  order  of  the  Knights  Templars. 
But  he  supported  the  burgher  classes.  He  was  a  hard,  unlov- 
able man,  but  his  reign  was  a  great  one  for  France. 

The  Later  Capetians 

1314-  Philip  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Louis  X,  who  after  a  short 
'  reign  of  eighteen  months  died,  leaving  only  a  daughter  to 
succeed  him.  Many  of  the  French  thought  that  if  this 
daughter  were  allowed  to  reign  she  would  inevitably  be 
sought  in  marriage  by  the  king  of  some  neighbouring  state, 
and  by  such  a  marriage  a  foreigner  would  become  king  of 
France.  The  French  people  were  already  too  much  awake 
to  surfer  this. 

So  the  States  General  was  called  together,  and  an  old 
1316  law  of  the  Salian  Franks  which  decreed  that  no  woman 
might  inherit  land  was  brought  to  light.  This  old  law  had 
really  nothing  to  do  with  the  succession  to  the  crown, 
but  it  served  the  purpose.  It  was  decided  that  because  of 
this  law  no  woman  might  sit  upon  the  throne  of  France, 
and  because  it  was  supposed  to  date  from  the  days  of  the 
Salian  Franks  it  was  called  the  Salic  Law. 

Philip         By  right  of  this  law  then,  Philip  V  succeeded  his  brother 
1316-22  LOUJS  X,  and  as  both  he  and  a  third  brother,  Charles  IV, 
1322-28  died  without  male  heirs  the   Capetian  dynasty  in  direct 
succession  died  out. 

During  the  three  hundred  and  fifty  years  that  the  Capets 
had  ruled  they  had  done  much  for  France.     Out  of  a  mass  of 


EDWARD  III  CLAIMS  THE  FRENCH  THRONE     143 

warring  feudal  states  they  had  made  a  compact  kingdom. 
All  the  great  fiefs  except  Flanders,  Brittany,  Burgundy,  and 
Guienne  had  been  absorbed  by  the  crown,  and  with  this 
absorption  the  power  of  the  feudal  nobility  was  practically 
put  an  end  to. 

The  capital,  after  being  moved  from  place  to  place,  was 
finally  fixed  at  Paris,  and  a  real,  if  elementary,  system  of 
government  was  established. 

Upon  the  death  of  Charles  IV,  in  accordance  with  the  newly 
adopted  Salic  Law,  the  crown  devolved  upon  Philip  of  Valois,  1328- 
nephew  of  Philip  IV,  and  cousin  of  the  last  three  kings.  But  135° 
these  three  kings,  Louis,  Philip,  and  Charles,  had  a  sister 
Isabella,  who  had  married  Edward  II,  king  of  England. 
Her  son,  Edward  III,  now  claimed  the  throne  of  France, 
on  the  ground  that  even  if  his  mother  Isabella  could  not  her- 
self be  queen  of  France,  she  could  transmit  the  title  to  a 
male  heir.  Therefore,  he  as  grandson  of  Philip  IV,  claimed 
to  have  a  better  right  to  the  throne  than  Philip  of  Valois, 
who  was  merely  a  nephew. 

The  Hundred  Years'  War 

Out  of  this  claim  there  arose  what  is  known  as  the  Hundred 
Years'  War.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  although  not  altogether 
continuous,  the  Hundred  Years'  War  covered  a  period  of 
a  hundred  and  seventeen  years — 1336-1453.  Its  effect, 
both  on  England  and  on  France,  was  so  great  and  enduring 
that  it  ranks  as  one  of  the  great  events  in  the  history  of  the 
end  of  the  Middle  Ages.  It  continued  throughout  the  reigns 
of  five  French  and  five  English  kings. 

Edward  Ill's  claim  to  the  French  throne  was,  however, 
not  the  sole  cause  of  the  war,  it  only  served  as  an  excuse. 
So  far  as  the  English  were  concerned  the  war  was  not  simply 
a  barons'  war  waged  in  the  interests  of  regal  power.  It 
was  for  them  linked  with  commerce  and  the  business  life 
of  the  people. 


144  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Flanders  was  one  of  the  French  fiefs  which  was  still  out- 
side the  French  king's  influence.  Indeed,  the  Flemish, 
grown  rich  by  their  own  industry,  had  bought  large  liberties, 
and  many  of  the  towns  of  Flanders  were  practically  republics. 
And  in  trying  to  amalgamate  Flanders  with  the  rest  of  his 
kingdom  the  king  of  France  was  forced  into  war  with  the 
haughty  and  freedom-loving  weavers  and  wool  merchants  of 
these  communes. 

The  Flemish  resisted  the  French  king's  efforts  to  incor- 
porate them  with  France  because  they  had  no  common 
interests.  The  interests  and  fortunes  of  Flanders  and  of 
England  were,  on  the  other  hand,  closely  bound  together. 
For  it  was  English  wool  which  kept  the  Flemish  looms  busy, 
and  English  wool-growers  depended  for  their  livelihood 
almost  entirely  on  the  Flemish  markets. 

The  French  king's  victory  over  the  Flemish  merchants 
would  constitute  a  menace  to  English  trade.  For  the  Eng- 
lish, therefore,  this  war  appeared  not  merely  a  struggle  for 
kingly  power  but  one  with  which  the  interests  of  the  people 
were  bound  up.  And  the  memorable  victories  gained  by 
the  English  were  victories  of  the  people  and  not  of  the 
nobles. 

Edward's  army  was,  it  may  also  be  noticed,  mainly  com- 
posed not  of  feudal  vassals  but  of  paid  soldiers  drawn  from 
the  lower  classes.  This  was,  no  doubt,  partly  from  necessity. 
For  a  vassal  was  only  bound  to  serve  his  lord  during  a  stated 
number  of  days.  He  was  often  not  bound  to  serve  him  at  all 
beyond  the  seas.  And  as,  wearied  by  his  long  wars,  Edward 
saw  more  and  more  of  his  nobles  turn  homeward,  he  was 
obliged  to  fill  their  places  by  paid  foot  soldiers,  either  volun- 
teers or  forced  levies. 

Added  to  this,  English  leaders  had  already,  through  their 
frequent  wars  with  Scotland,  begun  to  learn  the  value  of 
archers  and  foot  soldiers,  and  they  became  actually  desirous 
of  having  them  in  their  army.  But  these  English-Scottish 


"  A  CONTEMPTIBLE  LITTLE  ARMY  '          145 

wars,  which  had  taught  the  English  so  much,  were  of  a  local 
character.  Little  was  known  of  them  on  the  Continent. 
The  French  knights  knew  nothing  of  the  value  of  archers, 
and  to  them  Edward's  force,  deficient  as  it  was  in 
knightly  splendour,  must  have  seemed  a  contemptible 
little  army. 

Flemish  trade  was  as  much  in  the  balance  as  English  trade. 
But  at  first  the  Flemish  communes  declared  themselves 
neutral.  When,  however,  the  position  of  armed  neutrality 
became  untenable  they  flung  the  last  vestige  of  loyalty  to 
the  French  king  to  the  winds  and  openly  declared  their 
alliance  with  Edward.  This  alliance  was  of  great  advantage 
to  the  English,  as  it  threw  the  Flemish  ports  open  to  them 
and  made  the  landing  of  an  army  much  easier  that  it  would 
otherwise  have  been. 

EDWARD  IIFS  CLAIM  TO  THE  FRENCH 
THRONE 

Philip  III,  d.  1285. 


Philip  IV  (the  Fair),  Charles, 

d.  1314.  Count  of  Valois, 

d.  1314. 

I 
Philip  VI, 

1328-1350. 


Louis  X,      Isabella  =  Ed.  II,       Philip  V,        Charles  IV, 

d.  1316.  |     King  of       d.  1322.  d.  1328. 

|  I    England. 

f~  ~~j      Edward  III. 

Jeanne.         John, 

|  d.  1316. 

Charles. 

K 


146  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

CHAPTER  XXIX 
FRANCE  :  THE  HUNDRED  YEARS'  WAR 

Crecy  and  the  Siege  of  Calais 

1346  THE  first  important  victory  of  the  Hundred  Years'  War  was 
that  of  Cregy.  There  the  hungry,  ragged  English  archers 
and  foot  soldiers,  rough  men  of  the  people,  laid  low  the 
chivalry  of  France. 

Cregy  was  more  than  a  victory,  it  wras  the  beginning  of  a 
military  and  social  revolution.  It  showed  that  the  feudal 
army  was  hopelessly  behind  the  times,  hopelessly  inefficient 
when  confronted  with  science.  The  superb  courage  of  the 
French  noble  was  of  no  avail  when  confronted  with  the 
superior  arms  and  skill  of  the  English  peasant.  The  French 
at  Cregy  never  got  within  striking  distance  of  the  English, 
they  could  not  show  their  prowess  with  sword  or  spear,  for 
the  arrows  of  the  common  soldier  laid  them  low,  and  their 
splendid  but  weighty  armour  was  of  no  avail  against  steel- 
pointed  shafts  sped  with  the  force  of  iron  muscles. 

Hitherto  war  had  been  the  profession  and  the  pastime  of 
the  great.  The  knight  or  noble,  superbly  mounted  and  clad 
in  glittering  steel,  had  alone  counted  in  battle.  To  him  had 
been  all  the  honour  and  glory.  The  poor  man's  part  had 
been  but  to  suffer,  to  see  his  crops  laid  low,  his  cattle 
slaughtered  or  driven  off,  his  home  laid  in  ruins.  And  of  his 
suffering  no  man  took  note.  He  was  there  to  suffer.  Cregy 
was  one  of  the  turning-points  in  the  lives  of  great  and  humble 
alike.  Henceforth  the  gospel  of  the  nobilit}^  of  the  sword 
was  no  longer  received  with  perfect  faith. 

From  Crecy  Edward  marched  his  victorious  little  army  to 
Calais,  to  which  he  straightway  laid  siege.  From  the  com- 
mercial side  of  the  campaign  Calais  was  a  most  important 


THE  FALL  OF  CALAIS  147 

place  :   for  it  was  from  this  port  that  the  French  corsairs 
sailed  which  did  so  much  damage  to  English  trade. 

Archers,  however,  deadly  though  they  were  in  a  pitched 
battle,  were  useless  against  the  enormous  stone  walls  of  a 
mediaeval  fortress.  The  clumsy  engines  of  assault  made 
to  sling  stones  were  hardly  of  more  avail.  Gunpowder,  in- 
deed, had  lately  been  discovered,  and  the  English  dragged  two 
or  three  cannons  about  with  them  ;  but  they  were  small  and 
quite  powerless  against  the  tremendous  masonry  of  the  walls. 

The  only  means  then  of  taking  the  town  was  by  starvation. 
With  dogged  determination  the  English  set  about  it,  and  after 
eleven  months  Calais  yielded.  1347 

Edward  at  once  turned  Calais  into  an  English  colony, 
settling  it  with  several  thousand  English  merchants  and  their 
families.  It  very  quickly  became  of  immense  importance, 
both  from  a  military  and  a  commercial  point  of  view.  It  was 
henceforth  through  this  town  that  English  armies  were 
poured  into  France,  and  being  on  the  borders  of  Flanders  it 
became  also  the  centre  of  distribution  for  the  wool  trade. 
For  two  hundred  years  it  remained  an  English  possession 
in  spite  of  strenuous  efforts  on  the  part  of  the  French  to 
recover  it.  When  at  length  it  was  regained,  the  loss  made 
little  difference  to  England.  It  was  only  of  value  to  them 
during  the  aggressive  and  wholly  unjustifiable  wars  of  the 
Middle  Ages. 

For  some  years  the  pope,  Clement  VI,  had  been  trying  1342- 
to  mediate  between  the  kings  of  France  and  England.     But  1352 
he  had  joined  with  his  efforts  an  endeavour  to  extend  his 
power  over  the  English  Church,  and  Edward  had  received 
his  advances  coldly.     Now,  however,  pleased  with  the  result 
of  his  campaign,  he  listened  to  Clement,  and  a  nine  months' 
truce  was  signed.     But  no  lasting  peace  could  come  of  it. 
For  Edward,  flushed  with  victory,  was  not  in  a  mood  to 
resign  any  of   his  claims  ;    he  still  called  himself   king  of 
France  and  denied  Philip's  right  to  the  title. 


148  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

But  the  truce  was  destined  to  last  longer  and  men  were 
to  have  little  heart  for  war.  In  1348  a  pest,  more  baneful 
even  than  the  sword,  swept  over  Europe  from  the  East. 
This  dreadful  pestilence,  known  as  the  Black  Death,  wiped 
out  in  France  and  England  nearly  a  half  of  the  population. 

Battle  of  Poitiers 

In  1350  Philip  VI  died  and  was  succeeded  by  his  son  John. 
Under  him  the  war  continued,  and  ten  years  after  Cregy 
1356  the  battle  of  Poitiers  was  fought.  Except  that  the  pride  of 
chivalry  suffered  an  even  greater  defeat  it  was  but  a  re- 
petition of  Cregy.  At  Poitiers  King  John  of  France  had 
one  of  the  most  magnificent  of  feudal  armies  about  him. 
All  he  had  to  do  was  to  surround  the  little  English  army 
brought  against  him,  and  starve  it  into  surrender. 

But  that  was  not  the  chivalrous  manner  of  waging  war. 
The  nobles  were  anxious  to  wipe  out  the  shame  of  Cregy  in 
brilliant  fashion.  Merely  to  starve  an  army  into  surrender 
could  bring  no  renown.  So  once  again  the  chivalry  of  France 
pitted  itself  against  the  English  peasantry.  Once  again  the 
uselessness  of  unscientific  courage  was  proved,  and  the  knight 
went  down  before  the  churl. 

The  flower  of  French  nobility  lay  dead  upon  the  field.  The 
king  himself  was  taken  prisoner  to  England,  there  "  to 
enjoy  the  insolent  courtesy  "  of  his  captors.  But  in  spite  of 
Cregy,  in  spite  of  Poitiers,  the  conquest  of  France  was  as  far 
off  as  ever.  Every  feudal  castle  was  a  fortress,  and  the 
development  of  the  art  of  fortification  had  far  outdistanced 
the  invention  of  siege  machines.  Almost  the  only  means  of 
reducing  a  fortress  was  by  starvation  or  by  treachery.  An 
army  might  sit  down  for  months  before  a  fortress,  and  when 
at  last  the  endurance  of  the  defenders  was  exhausted  and 
they  yielded,  the  conquerors  only  found  themselves  master 
of  a  few  more  miles  of  territory,  and  the  business  of  reducing 
the  next  fortress  had  to  be  begun. 


TREATY  OF  BRETIGNY  149 

Even  had  it  been  possible  by  siege  after  siege  to  win  the 
country  it  would  have  been  impossible  to  hold  it.  After 
a  time  then,  weary  of  sieges,  the  English  left  the  cities  alone 
and  ravished  the  land,  making  it  a  desert.  For  four  years 
they  marched  up  and  down  practically  unhindered,  burning, 
plundering,  and  destroying,  until  the  once  rich  country  was  a 
wilderness  of  ashes  and  blood-stained  ruins. 

The  Black  Death  had  already  carried  off  hundreds  and 
thousands,  and  added  to  this  the  land  was  torn  by  civil  wars, 
the  nobles  fighting  among  themselves,  and  the  peasants, 
driven  mad  by  misery,  rising  against  the  nobles, 

Treaty  of  Bretigny 

The  unhappy  people,  pushed  at  length  to  desperation,  i860 
yielded  to  Edward's  demands,  and  by  the  Treaty  of  Bretigny 
half  of  France  south  of  the  Loire  was  given  up  to  the  English. 
It  was  given,  too,  not  as  a  fief  but  to  be  held  outright 
"  in  the  manner  in  which  the  kings  of  France  had  held  it." 
On  his  side  Edward  resigned  his  claim  to  the  throne  of  France, 
and  for  a  time  there  was  peace. 

It  was,  however,  only  exhaustion  which  had  made  France 
yield  to  the  English  yoke.  Nine  years  later,  when  the 
country  had  to  some  extent  recovered  from  that  exhaustion, 
Charles  V,  who  had  succeeded  his  father  in  1364,  found  an 
excuse  for  rejecting  the  Treaty  of  Bretigny,  and  the  Hundred 
Years'  War  broke  out  again.  It  now  entered  upon  a  new 
phase.  Edward  III  had  to  a  great  extent  lost  his  Flemish 
allies,  he  was  old,  and  his  great  general  and  son,  the  Black 
Prince,  was  ill.  On  the  French  side  Charles  V,  the  politic 
and  not  over-chivalrous  king,  was  aided  by  the  military 
genius  of  Du  Guesclin.  So,  for  a  time,  all  went  well 
with  France,  and  misfortune  after  misfortune  pursued  the  1374 
English,  until  at  length  little  of  Edward's  conquests  remained 
save  Bordeaux,  Bayonne,  and  Calais. 

But  Charles  V  died  at  the  age  of  forty-six,  leaving  his  son,  1380 


150  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

a  child  of  twelve,  to  succeed  him,  and  France  fell  once  more 
on  evil  days.  During  the  minority  of  Charles  VI  the  country 
was  torn  by  strife  between  the  nobles,  who  quarrelled  for  the 
power  of  regent.  Then  he,  scarce  grown  to  manhood, 
became  insane,  and  once  more  the  country  drifted  fast  into 
civil  war. 

Renewal  of  the  War  by  Henry  V 

It  wras  then  that  Henry  V,  the  young  and  ambitious  king 
of  England,  determined  to  reassert  the  English  claim  to  the 

1415  crown  of  France.  Once  again  at  Agincourt  the  story  of 
Cregy  and  of  Poitiers  was  repeated,  and  fifteen  thousand 
English  archers  defeated  an  army  of  fifty  thousand  knights 
and  nobles.  After  this  prodigious  victory  Henry's  army  was, 
however,  loo  exhausted  to  do  more,  and  he  led  it  back  to 
England. 

In  spite  of  the  English  menace  civil  war  continued  in 
France.  When  Henry  returned  with  a  fresh  army  he 
was  encouraged  by  the  rebels,  and  in  1420  the  poor,  mad 
king  was  forced  to  sign  the  Treaty  of  Troyes.  By  this 
Treaty  Charles  VI  gave  his  daughter  Catharine  in  marriage 
to  Henry,  and  acknowledged  him  as  his  heir,  thus  disinherit- 
ing his  own  son  Charles,  and  making  a  gift  of  the  French 
crown  to  a  foreigner. 

1422  Henry,  however,  never  became  king  of  France,  for  he 
died  in  1422  a  little  less  than  two  months  before  his  father- 
in-law.  And  although  upon  the  death  of  Charles  VI  the 
baby  king  of  England,  Henry  VI,  was  proclaimed  in  Paris 
as  in  England,  many  of  the  French  rejected  him.*  The 
Dauphin  also  was  proclaimed  as  Charles  VII,  and  the  miser- 
able war  dragged  on. 

*  See  map,  p.  159. 


KEY ':-  Reign  of  Edward M  (1327-137 
Territory  tost  by  England  after 
the  Treaty  of  Bret/gny      BH 
Territory  held  in  13  77    BBS 
French  Frontier 
Possessions  of  (he  D.of  Burgundy 


mmm^mm^ 


DUCHY 

II  I  OF! 

BI1JRGUN 

I 


X 

Navarette 
(Naiera)  1367 


FRANCE  IN  THE  FOURTEENTH  CENTURY 

Treaty  of  Bretigny  (1360).          HI  Territory  gained  by  England 


152  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  XXX 

GERMANY:    CONTINUED   STRUGGLES 
WITH   THE   POPE 

1250  WITH  the  'death  of  Frederick  II  (see  Chapter  XXVII)  the 
Mediaeval  Empire  may  be  said  to  end.  After  him  came 

1250-  Conrad  IV,  the  last  of  the  Hohenstaufens,  and  the  Great 

1254  interregnum,  when  for  a  space  of  nineteen  years  there  was 
no  real  emperor,  and  the  crown  was  bandied  about  among 
foreign  princes.  Then  followed  a  period  of  a  hundred  and 
sixty-four  years,  when  the  crown  passed  from  one  house  of 
nobles  to  another,  in  all  ten  emperors.  During  this  time 
the  borders  of  the  Empire  shrank  considerably.  Italy  was 
entirely  lost.  In  the  north  the  great  trading  cities  became 
independent  republics,  the  middle  was  held  by  the  pope. 
In  the  south  the  kingdoms  of  Sicily  and  Naples  were  con- 

1266  quered  by  Charles  of  Anjou.  He  was  called  in  by  Pope 
Urban  IV  to  crush  the  Hohenstaufens,  and  by  him  Conradin, 

1268    the  last  of  the  German-Norman  kings,  was  put  to  death. 

Poland  became  an  independent  monarchy  and  rendered 
no  more  allegiance  to  the  German  crown.  Denmark  and 
Hungary  also  became  free  of  the  Empire.  To  the  emperors 
there  remained  only  Germany  itself.  It  was  a  Germany 
more  hopelessly  divided  than  ever.  While  every  other 
kingdom  in  Europe  had  been  moving  steadily  towards 
united  nationality,  Germany  had  moved  in  the  opposite 
direction  and  now  contained  two  hundred  and  seventy-six 
independent  states. 

The  rulers  of  these  states  were  constantly  at  variance  with 
each  other.  They  were  always  ready  to  fight  each  other, 
but  never  to  combine  and  fight  a  foreign  foe.  There  was  no 
sense  of  nationality  among  them,  and  their  loyalty  to  their 


THE  POWER  OF  THE  ELECTORS  153 

overlord  the  emperor  was  of  the  slightest.  These  overlords 
still  regarded  themselves  as  emperors,  but  for  two  centuries 
few  went  to  Rome  to  receive  the  crown  at  the  hands  of  the 
pope,  and  after  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century  none  did 
so.  As  kings  they  had  little  power,  they  had  no  capital,  and 
no  government  worthy  of  the  name.  Thus  striving  for  world 
dominion  the  emperors  ceased  even  to  rule  in  Germany. 

During  this  time  the  power  of  the  electors  who  chose 
the  emperor  grew  rapidly.  In  early  days  the  emperors  had 
been  elected  by  the  whole  of  the  nobles.  But  by  degree 
most'of  them  lost  this  right,  which  was  at  last  usurped  by 
seven  men  only,  three  churchmen  and  four  nobles.  The 
churchmen  were  the  archbishops  of  Mainz,  Cologne,  and 
Treves.  The  nobles  were  the  King  of  Bohemia,  the  Margrave 
of  Brandenburg,  the  Duke  of  Saxony,  and  the  Count  Pala- 
tine. In  the  seventeenth  century  the  princes  of  Bavaria 
and  of  Hanover  were  added,  making  the  number  of  electors 
nine. 

As  time  went  on  the  power  of  these  electors  increased 
enormously,  until  at  length  they  claimed  to  be  the  seven 
pillars  upon  which  the  Empire  rested.  They  forced  the 
emperor  of  their  choice  to  agree  to  any  conditions  they  liked 
to  impose.  If  he  tried  to  go  his  own  way  they  waged  war 
against  him,  and  sometimes  even  deposed  him.  And  in  this 
they  always  found  a  friend  in  the  pope,  to  whose  advantage 
it  was  to  have  a  weak  emperor  on  the  throne. 

Lewis  IV 

In  1313  the  electors  could  not  agree    and  two  emperors 
were  elected,  Lewis  IV  and  Frederick  the  Handsome.     In 
consequence  the  land  was  torn  with  civil  war  for  many  years. 
The  popes  were  by  this  time  living  in  Avignon,  little  more 
than  vassals  of  the  French  king.     Yet  Pope  John  XXII  1313- 
still  tried  to  impose  his  will  upon  Germany.     He  more  or  1334 
less  took  the  part  of  Frederick    and  commanded  Lewis 


154  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

to  give  up  the  crown  in  three  months    under  pain  of  ex- 
communication. 

Lewis  replied  with  fury.  The  election  of  a  German  king 
he  declared  lay  with  the  German  people  only  and  needed 
no  sanction  from  the  pope.  As  to  the  quarrel  between  the 
two  rival  emperors,  that  should  be  settled  by  the  sword 
and  not  by  the  pope's  decree.  It  was  so  settled,  and  after 
long  years  of  warfare  Lewis  became  reconciled  to  Frederick 

1325    and  agreed  to  share  the  throne  with  him. 

1328  Lewis  then  marched  to  Rome,  deposed  John,  and  en- 
throned an  anti-pope  of  his  own  choosing.  At  first  the 
Roman  people  received  him  with  joy.  But  soon  their  mood 
changed,  and  anti-pope  and  emperor  alike  fled  for  their  lives. 
In  1330  Frederick  died,  and  three  years  later  Lewis,  weary 
of  the  long  conflict,  tried  to  make  peace  with  the  pope. 
He  declared  himself  willing  to  be  recrowned  by  the 
rightful  pope,  and  do  any  penance  that  he  should  lay  upon 
him. 

1334-      But  Benedict  XII,  who  had  now  succeeded  John  XXII, 

1342  asked  too  much.  He  demanded  that  Lewis  should  give  up 
the  imperial  title  until  the  Church  should  decide  whether 
he  had  a  right  to  it  or  not.  At  this  both  the  emperor  and  the 

1338  electors  were  filled  with  wrath,  and  they  issued  a  solemn 
manifesto  in  which  they  declared  that  the  emperor  took  his 
rank  and  crown  from  them,  and  that  there  was  no  need 
whatever  for  confirmation  from  the  pope.  Thus  the  in- 
dependence of  the  Empire  from  all  papal  interference  was 
made  legal. 

Charles  IV 

But  although  the  princes  of  Germany  had  by  this  mani- 
festo at  last  shown  some  dawning  loyalty  the  popes  clung 
obstinately  to  their  powers,  and  in  1346  Clement  VI  deposed 
Lewis  and  called  upon  the  electors  to  choose  another  em- 
peror. By  this  time  the  electors  were  weary  of  Lewis, 


A  PRIEST'S  KING  " 


155 


and  they  obeyed  the  pope  and  chose  Charles  the  son  of  the 
blind  king  of  Bohemia. 

This  happened  in  July.      In  August  the  battle  of  Cre£y  1346 
was  fovrht,  and  in  it  both  King  John  and  his  son  Charles 


House  ofrlaosburg 
Ecclesiastical  States 

Imperial  Cities 

Dominions  of  Charles  the  Bold  [•'•'•'•'• 
Boundary  of  German) 
Hansa  Towns  underlined-  Bremen 
Other  States  —  no  shading 


GERMANY,  A.D.   1254  To  I5°° 

fought  on  the  side  of  France.  King  John  was  killed,  and 
Charles  fled  back  to  Germany.  Here  once  again  the  land 
was  torn  with  civil  strife.  For  Charles  was  not  the  choice 
of  the  people.  They  felt  that  he  had  been  imposed  by  the 
pope,  and  called  him  "  a  priest's  king,"  and  would  have 
nothing  to  say  to  him. 

Then  in  1347  Lewis  died,  and  the  crown  went  begging. 


156  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

It  was  offered  to  Edward  III  of  England,  refused  by  him 
and  one  German  prince  after  another,  and  finally  by  dint  of 
enormous  bribes  secured  by  Charles. 

During  his  reign  Germany,  like  the  rest  of  Europe,  was 

1348  devastated  by  the  Black  Death,  which  carried  off  nearly 
half  the  inhabitants.  It  was  followed  by  a  terrible  per- 
secution of  the  Jews  who,  according  to  the  superstition  of 
the  times,  were  believed  to  have  caused  the  plague.  But 
"  Germany,"  said  a  later  emperor,  Maximilian  I,  "  never 
suffered  from  a  more  pestilent  plague  than  the  reign  of  Charles 
IV."  He  utterly  neglected  Germany,  but  did  everything 
in  his  power  to  aggrandize  his  own  kingdom  of  Bohemia. 

1356  On  the  other  hand  he  issued  a  great  document,  which  from 
the  colour  of  its  seal  has  come  to  be  known  as  the  Golden 
Bull  of  Charles  IV.  It  was  a  document  almost  as  important 
for  Germany  as  the  Magna  Carta  for  England,  forming  as  it 
did  the  groundwork  of  the  laws  for  more  than  four  hundred 
years. 

One  of  its  chief  aims  was  to  put  an  end  to  strife  over  the 
election  of  the  emperor.  By  it  the  electors  were  made  still 
more  important.  They  were  given  full  sovereign  rights  in 
their  own  lands.  They  could  coin  money,  levy  taxes,  and 
make  war  as  they  chose.  From  their  courts  of  justice  there 
was  no  appeal  even  to  the  emperor,  and  the  smallest  crime 
against  their  persons  was  punishable  as  high  treason.  They 
were  thus  raised  far  above  all  other  princes  of  the  realm. 
Taken  together  they  were  far  more  powerful  than  the  emperor 
himself.  In  the  whole  Bull  there  was  no  mention  of  the 
pope  and  his  claims,  or  even  of  Italy. 


THE  "  KING  OF  BOURGES  "  157 


CHAPTER  XXXI 

FRANCE  :  THE  END  OF  THE  HUNDRED 
YEARS'  WAR— THE  REIGN  OF  LOUIS  XI 

Ax  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  France  was  in  a 
pitiable  state.  The  horrors  of  the  Civil  War  (see  Chapter 
XXIX),  the  crimes  it  had  induced,  seemed  to  have  crushed 
out  all  national  spirit.  So  much  so  was  this  that  the  noxious 
Treaty  of  Troyes  aroused  little  opposition.  Few  realized 
the  national  humiliation  it  involved,  and  at  first  it  was  re- 
ceived almost  everywhere  with  something  like  satisfaction. 
Yet  from  the  degradation  of  the  Treaty  of  Troyes  and  its 
consequences  France  was  to  awake  to  true  nationality. 

In  1422  two  kings  held  sway  over  France.  In  Paris, 
John  Duke  of  Bedford  ruled  in  the  name  of  his  baby 
nephew,  Henry  VI  of  England.  At  Bourges  Charles  VII 
of  France  established  himself.  The  latter  seemed  far  the 
weaker  of  the  two.  Only  a  small  portion  of  France  in  the 
valley  of  the  Loire  was  true  to  him,  his  army  consisted 
chiefly  of  foreign  hired  troops,  and  the  English  contemptu- 
ously called  him  king  of  Bourges.  They  feared  him  not  at 
all,  but  they  determined  to  wrest  from  him  all  that  he  had, 
and  they  laid  siege  to  Orleans.  1428 

Charles  was  vacillating  and  weak,  and  while  Orleans x 
struggled  in  the  toils  of  the  foe  he  idled  uncertainly  at  the 
castle  of  Chinon.  But  now  at  length  France  found  its  soul 
as  a  nation.  Patriotism  awoke.  A  few  years  before  one 
part  of  France  had  not  greatly  cared  if  another  part  had 
been  devasted.  One  town  had  not  greatly  cared  if  another 
was  besieged.  Now  Orleans  was  besieged,  and  all  France 
cared,  under  the  yoke  of  the  foreigner  although  it  was.  The 
people  of  France  cared,  and  in  their  cottages  the  peasants 


158  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

wept  for  the  sorrows  of  their  king  and  country,  and  armed 
only  with  their  scythes  and  axes,  they  rose  against  the  hated 
foreigner. 

Joan  of  Arc 

In  the  village  of  Domremy  on  the  borders  of  Burgundy  and 
Lorraine,  there  lived  a  simple  peasant  girl  named  Joan  of 
Arc.  All  her  short  life  she  had  heard  of  war  and  disaster, 
of  divisions  among  the  nobles,  of  invasion  by  a  foreign  foe. 
Now  she  heard  how  the  rightful  king  of  France  was  an  out- 
cast in  his  kingdom,  denied  his  just  inheritance  by  that  foe. 

She  thought  and  dreamed  of  all  these  things,  until  at 
length  she  seemed  to  hear  the  voices  of  the  saints  calling 
her  to  go  forth  to  save  her  country  and  her  king.  At  first 
she  feared  to  listen  to  these  voices.  Then,  greatly  daring, 
she  determined  to  obey  what  seemed  to  her  a  heaven-sent 
command. 

So  she  set  forth  on  the  long  and  perilous  journey  across  the 
war-ridden  land.  God  protected  her  and  she  reached  the 
castle  of  Chinon  in  safety.  She  found  it  hard  at  first 
to  make  the  king  believe  in  her  mission  ;  but  she  was  so 
filled  with  holy  enthusiasm  and  devotion  that  none  who 
came  in  contact  with  her  could  long  remain  unbelieving. 
Joan  of  Arc  therefore  was  accepted  as  a  soldier  and  a  leader, 
and  set  forth  for  Orleans. 

All  that  the  awakened  patriotism  of  France  required  was 
a  leader  who  could  command  unquestioning  obedience  and 
direct  its  disunited  efforts.  Only  a  miracle  was  needed, 
and  the  miracle  happened.  Under  the  leadership  of  a  girl  of 
eighteen  the  undisciplined  herd  of  nobles  and  their  followers 
became  a  fighting  machine.  Men  brutalized  by  long  warfare 
became  gentle  as  doves  and  fierce  as  lions.  They  swore  no 
1429  more,  but  they  fought  as  if  inspired.  Before  long  Orleans 
was  relieved,  Charles  VII  was  crowned  at  Reims,  and  the 
Maid's  work  was  done.  But  she  was  not  allowed  to  go  back 


K£Y:-Temtory  held  by  Henry  V  B 
Dominions  of  Charles 
the  Bold  of  Burgundy   K4MKOR 
French  Frontter  *Z.^.'t 1467- 1477 


FRANCE  IN  THE  FIFTEENTH  CENTURY 


Map  illustrating  Treaty  of  Troyes 


160  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

to  her  peaceful  village  life  as  she  desired,  and  in  May  of 
1430  she  fell  into  the  hands  of  the  enemy.  By  them  she  was 
cruelly  burned  as  a  witch. 

This  brutal  act  availed  them  nothing.  The  English  and 
their  Burgundian  allies  might  kill  the  Maid,  they  could  not 
kill  her  glorious  work.  For  little  more  than  a  year  only 
she  had  led  France,  but  she  had  led  it  successfully  to 
nationality  and  victory.  The  English  cause  was  dead  from 
the  moment  Joan  of  Arc  carried  her  white  banner  into 
Orleans.  So,  in  spite  of  weakness,  divisions,  intrigues, 
and  even  civil  war,  the  English  were,  by  slow  degrees, 
driven  out  of  France.  At  length  only  Calais  remained  to 
1453  them,  and  the  Hundred  Years'  War  was  at  an  end. 

Earlier  in  this  same  year,  Constantinople  had  fallen 
before  the  Turks,  and  they  had  laid  hold  of  a  great  part  of 
eastern  Europe.  That  they  were  able  to  do  so  was  due 
greatly  to  the  enfeebled  state  of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire, 
and  in  part  to  the  exhausted  state  of  France.  The  emperor 
did  little  to  stay  the  triumphant  march  of  the  Turks.  France, 
which  all  through  the  Crusades  had  taken  a  leading  part  in 
combating  their  power,  was  too  stricken  and  exhausted 
now  to  attempt  a  crusade  against  their  aggression. 

This  was  a  misfortune  for  eastern  Europe,  but  it  was  well 
for  France.  Instead  of  frittering  away  strength  upon 
foreign  warfare,  she  turned  to  the  work  of  national  recon- 
struction and  of  regaining  her  high  place  among  the  powers 
of  Europe. 

France  had  suffered  much  during  the  Hundred  Years' 
War,  but  it  had  gained  much.  It  gained  more  than  it  lost, 
for  out  of  the  necessity  of  combining  against  a  common  foe 
a  nation  was  born,  and  the  nation  redeemed  itself.  But 
its  redemption  was  not  due  to  monarchical  power.  It 
was  due  to  the  people  who,  during  the  long  struggle,  had 
begun  to  assert  themselves.  Without  their  awakened 
patriotism  Charles,  vacillating  and  mediocre  as  he 


LOUIS  XI,  KING  OF  FRANCE  161 

could  have  accomplished  nothing.  He  has  been  given  the 
surname  of  the  Victorious,  but  also  that  of  the  Well  Served. 
The  latter  is,  perhaps,  the  better  name.  He  was  well  served 
by  his  people. 

But  the  great  strength  of  the  French  monarchy  was  only 
latent,  and  when  peace  was  restored  that  strength  awoke. 
Under  the  weight  of  it  the  dawning  liberties  of  the  people 
were  blotted  out,  and  from  this  time  onward  the  kingly  power 
in  France  increased  until  at  length  it  became  an  intolerable 
tyranny  against  which,  at  the  bitter  end,  the  people  revolted. 

Louis  XI 

Under  Charles  VII  France  wrung  itself  free  from  a  foreign  1461- 
yoke.     Under  his  son,  that  sinister  genius,  Louis  XI,  it  1483 
became  a  great  monarchy.     Louis  XI  may  be  called  the  first 
king  of  modern  France.     The  kings  who  had  gone  before 
him  had  been  mediaeval.      Louis  was  modern.     There  was 
no  mediaeval  glamour  about  his  court,  and  although    he 
ruled  like  a  tyrant,  it  was  with  the  cool-headed  tyranny  of  a 
lawyer,  and  not  with  the  brutal  arrogance  of  a  feudal  lord. 

Louis  was  brave,  but  he  never  fought  an  enemy  openly  if 
he  could  gain  his  end  in  any  other  way.  That  many  of  his 
ways  were  tortuous  mattered  little  to  him.  "  He  who  does 
not  know  how  to  deceive  does  not  know  how  to  reign^" 
was  the  sole  maxim  which  he  was  at  the  pains  to  teach  to  his 
son  the  Dauphin. 

To  him  war  was  a  clumsy  weapon,  to  be  used  only  in  the 
last  resort.  Money,  and  the  power  of  a  fair,  if  false,  tongue, 
he  esteemed  much  more.  He  was  always  ready  to  pledge  his 
word,  and  unscrupulous  in  breaking  it  if  he  could  gain  thereby. 
He  thought  that  every  one  had  his  price,  and '  was  willing 
enough  to  pay  the  price  in  order  to  win  him  to  his  side. 

Government  was  a  science  to  Louis,  and  he  determined 
that  there  should  be  no  power  in  France  save  the  king's 
power.  So  he  crushed  the  feudal  nobles,  both  great  and 

L 


162  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

small,  out  of  existence,  and  took  possession  of  their  lands. 
He  taught  them,  by  severe  measures,  that  no  man  had  the 
right  to  disturb  the  peace  of  the  realm,  or  make  alliance 
with  the  king's  enemies. 

He  laid  upon  the  people  a  burden  of  taxes  hardly  to  be 
borne,  but  he  granted  to  the  burgher  classes  many  privi- 
leges. This  he  did  through  no  love  of  them,  but  merely  that 
he  might  make  use  of  them.  To  him  men  were  but  pawns 
in  his  great  game,  and  he  did  what  he  would  with  them.  Wily, 
perfidious,  and  cruel,  he  went  his  way  alone,  the  States 
General  being  called  together  only  once  throughout  his  reign. 

He  was  feared  by  all,  loved  by  few,  but  he  left  France  united, 
and  with  her  borders  defined  and  secured  as  they  had  never 
been  before.  With  him  the  Middle  Ages  may  be  said  to  end. 

THE  HOUSES  OF  VALOIS  AND  BURGUNDY 

Philip  VI,  1328-1350 

I 
John,  1350-1364. 


Charles  V,  1364-1380.  Philip, 

|  Duke  of  Burgundy,  d.  1404, 

|  |          m.  Margaret,  heiress  of  the 

Charles  VI,         Louis  of  Orleans.       Count  of  Flanders. 

1380-1422.  |  | 


|  Charles  of         John  the 

Charles  VII,  Katharine,         Orleans.          Fearless. 


1422-1461.  m.  Henry  V  of 


Louis  XI,  1461-1483. 

i 


England. 


I 

Philip  the  Good. 

I 

Charles  the  Bold, 


d.  1477. 

Charles  VIII,  1483-1498,    Jeanne  =  Louis  XU,  ^498-1515. 


SPAIN  CONSOLIDATED  163 


CHAPTER  XXXII 

THE  MOORS  DRIVEN  OUT  OF  SPAIN 

SPAIN    BEGINS  TO   COUNT  AMONG 

THE  NATIONS  OF  EUROPE 

EARLY  in  the  eighth  century  the  Arabs  overran  Spain  and 
took  almost  complete  possession  of  it  (see  Chapter  VII). 
But  although  Arabia  was  the  birthplace  of  Mohammed,  the 
Arabians  were  less  fanatical  than  any  other  of  the  followers 
of  the  Prophet.  They  did  not  insist  on  a  wholesale  conver- 
sion of  the  conquered  people.  For  they  loved  the  Christian's 
gold  more  than  his  conversion.  So  on  condition  of  paying 
a  tax  Christians  were  allowed  to  follow  their  own  religion. 
Nearly  all  the  nobles  accepted  this  condition,  but  many  of 
the  people  also  became  Mohammedan,  especially  the  slaves. 
For  by  professing  Mohammedanism  a  slave  earned  freedom. 

But  although  nearly  all  Spain  came  under  the  domination 
of  the  Arabs,  a  small  portion  did  not.  In  the  extreme  north- 
west, among  the  Asturian  mountains,*  a  few  of  the  in- 
habitants held  out  against  the  invaders.  Mountains  have 
always  been  the  last  resort  of  a  conquered  people,  and  the 
Mohammedans  were  never  able  to  dislodge  this  remnant  from 
their  strongholds.  As  years  passed,  indeed,  these  Spaniards, 
as  we  may  now  call  them,  strengthened  their  hold  upon  the 
north.  Bit  by  bit  they  drove  the  Saracens  southward, 
and  at  length  several  little  kingdoms  were  formed,  such 
as  Navarre,  Leon,  Aragon,  and  Gastile,  the  last  taking  its 
name  from  the  many  castles  built  to  defend  it  against  the 
Saracens. 

These  kingdoms  were  all  small,  and  all  disunited,  but  by 

*  See  map,  p.  47, 


164  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

degrees,  through  marriages  between  the  various  royal  families 
and  in  other  ways,  several  became  united  in  the  twelfth 
century  into  the  kingdom  of  Aragon,  and  in  the  thirteenth 
century  eight  little  states  were  united  into  the  kingdom  of 
Leon  and  Castile. 

In  the  twelfth  century  also,  under  Alfonso  I,  Portugal 
became  a  kingdom  with  a  territory  less  than  half  its  present 
size.  But  both  Alfonso  and  his  successors  fought  persistently 
against  the  Saracens,  and  in  1250  Alfonso  III  conquered 
what  is  now  the  southern  portion  of  Portugal  from  them,  so 
that  from  the  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  the  boundaries 
of  Portugal  have  been  very  much  what  they  are  to-day. 

After  the  union  of  the  various  small  Spanish  states  into 
kingdoms  the  conquest  of  Spain  from  the  Moors  went  on 
rapidly,  and  by  1265  all  that  was  left  to  them  was  Granada 
in  the  extreme  south.  And  even  that  was  not  a  free  king- 
dom, for  the  king  of  Granada  owned  the  king  of  Castile  as 
overlord. 

For  more  than  two  hundred  years  from  this  time  the 
king  of  Aragon  and  the  king  of  Castile  ruled  over  Spain 
side  by  side.  But  as  yet  there  was  little  sense  of  Spanish 
nationality.  The  two  kings  were  rivals  and  often  enemies. 
Their  kingdoms  were  merely  a  conglomeration  of  small 
states,  the  inhabitants  of  which  spoke  different  languages 
and  had  little  in  common  with  each  other.  There  were 
among  them  Moriscoes  or  converted  Saracens,  Marranes  or 
converted  Jews,  and  Mozarabes,  Spaniards  who  had  become 
Mohammedans.  To  reconcile  all  these  and  make  them 
into  one  nation  was  no  easy  matter,  yet  slowly  Spain  moved 
towards  nationality. 

Ferdinand  and  Isabella 

At  length  in  1469  Isabella  of  Castile  married  her  cousin  * 
Ferdinand  of  Aragon,  and  thus  the  two  crowns  were  united. 
*  See  genealogical  table,  p.  215, 


SPAIN  AND  THE  INQUISITION  165 

But  the  union  of  the  crowns  alone  did  not  satisfy  Ferdinand 
and  Isabella.  They  desired  true  national  union,  and 
they  became  persuaded  that  the  only  way  to  ensure  this 
was  to  unite  all  their  peoples  into  one  national  Church. 
In  order  to  do  this  the  Inquisition  was  introduced  into  1481 
Spain. 

The  Inquisition  was  a  tribunal  of  the  Church  called  into 
being  to  find  out  and  punish  all  heretics.  It  grew  up 
gradually,  and  was  not  instituted  with  all  its  cruel  methods 
until  the  thirteenth  century.  It  was  a  terrible  institution, 
and  one  from  which  there  was  neither  appeal  nor  escape. 
Every  one  accused  before  the  tribunal  was  presupposed 
guihy,  and  those  who  would  not  at  once  confess  their 
guilt  were  tortured  until  they  did.  Fines  and  imprison- 
ment, the  forced  undertaking  of  pilgrimages,  or  the 
wearing  of  opprobrious  garments  were  the  lightest  punish- 
ments to  which  the  guilty  were  condemned,  while 
hundreds  and  thousands  were  burned  to  death  with 
horrible  cruelty. 

Until  the  Inquisition  was  introduced,  Spain,  with  its 
strangely  mixed  population,  had  been  more  tolerant  in  the 
matter  of  religion  than  any  country  in  Europe.  In  their 
day  of  power  the  Moors  and  Saracens  had  been  tolerant. 
When  their  day  of  power  came,  the  Christians  also  were 
tolerant  and  allowed  both  Jews  and  Mohammedans  to 
follow  their  own  religion  in  peace. 

Zealous  religious  fervour  was  not  at  this  time  a  character- 
istic of  Spain.  The  Spaniards  took  no  part  in  the  Crusades, 
and  none  of  the  rulers  of  the  many  little  Spanish  states 
appeared  before  the  walls  of  Jerusalem.  This  was  partly 
due  to  the  fact  that  during  the  period  of  the  Crusades  the 
Spaniards  were  busy  fighting  the  Saracens  at  their  own  doors, 
reconquering  Spain  from  them. 

But  these  wars  between  Spaniards  and  Saracens  were 
national  rather  than  religious.  The  Spaniards  desired  to 


166  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

free  Spain  from  the  usurper  rather  than  to  convert  the 
infidel.  So  when  the  Saracens  were  conquered  they  were 
left  more  or  less  in  peace  to  follow  their  own  religion.  The 
rulers,  indeed,  openly  recognized  the  religious  rights  of  their 
Mohammedan  subjects,  and  one  of  the  kings  of  Castile  took 
the  title  of  Emperor  of  all  the  Spains  and  of  the  Men  of  the 
Two  Religions.  But  the  popes  had  long  looked  upon  this 
tolerance  as  wicked  laxness,  and  at  length  Isabella,  who 
was  deeply  and  earnestly  religious,  was  persuaded  to  allow 
the  Inquisition  to  be  set  up  in  Castile. 

In  everything  else  Isabella  was  a  great  and  wise  ruler. 
But  in  the  eyes  of  later  generations  this  one  act  has  dimmed 
the  splendour  of  her  reign.  She  must,  however,  be  judged 
not  as  a  ruler  of  to-day  but  as  a  ruler  of  the  fifteenth  cen- 
tury. All  Europe  was  full  of  religious  fanaticism.  To 
the  noblest  and  purest  of  Churchmen  persecution  seemed  a 
glorious  work  for  Christ.  How  then  should  a  mere  woman 
set  her  tender  heart  in  opposition  to  their  wisdom.  So  for 
the  glory  of  God,  and  for  the  exaltation  of  the  Catholic 
Faith,  Isabella  signed  the  deed  by  which  the  fires  of  perse- 
cution were  lit  in  Spain — fires  which  were  not  to  be  extin- 
guished for  hundreds  of  years.  Even  in  the  beginning  of 
the  eighteenth  century  the  "  question  by  torture  "  was  still 
in  use,  and  only  in  1834  was  the  Inquisition  finally  and  utterly 
abolished. 

Besides  uniting  all  Spain  into  one  Church,  Ferdinand  and 
Isabella  determined  to  wrest  the  last  inch  of  the  soil  from  the 
1482  Mohammedans,  and  they  declared  war  against  the  king  of 
Granada.  The  queen  threw  herself  heart  and  soul  into  this 
war.  She  appeared  in  the  field  fully  dressed  in  armour, 
encouraging  the  troops  with  brave  words  and  reviewing 
them  frequently.  She  visited  every  part  of  the  camp, 
and  saw  that  the  soldiers  were  provided  not  only  with 
necessaries  but  with  comforts.  Above  all,  she  cared  for  the 
sick  and  the  wounded. 


THE  FALL  OF  GRANADA  167 

By  her  orders  large  tents  known  as  the  Queen's  tents 
were  set  up  in  the  camps.  These  were  furnished  with 
nurses  and  medicines,  at  her  expense,  and  there  the  sick 
and  wounded  could  find  rest  and  care.  This  is  believed 
to  be  the  first  attempt  at  a  camp  hospital. 

Fall  of  Granada 

For  ten  years  the  war  with  the  Moors  dragged  on,  the 
Spaniards  often  meeting  with  reverses.  But  at  length 
civil  war  broke  out  in  Granada  itself.  Weakened  by  strife 
within  as  well  as  w*ar  without,  the  Moors  could  no  longer 
stand  their  ground,  and  on  November  25,  1491,  Granada 
yielded.  The  last  Moorish  king  gave  up  the  keys  of  the 
Alhambra  Palace  to  the  conquerors.  Then,  mounting  his 
horse,  he  rode  away.  Upon  a  hill  above  the  city  of  Granada 
he  drew  rein,  and  with  tears  in  his  eyes  turned  to  look  for 
the  last  time  upon  his  lost  capital. 

"  Yea,"  cried  his  mother  scornfully,  as  she  watched  him, 
"  weep  like  a  woman  for  the  loss  of  thy  kingdom,  since  thou 
couldst  not  defend  it  like  a  man."  Crushed  by  his  foes, 
despised  by  his  friends,  the  Moor  bowed  his  head,  and  rode 
forth  into  exile. 

The  long  struggle  between  Moors  and  Spaniards  which  had 
lasted  for  nearly  eight  hundred  years  was  thus  ended.  Spain 
from  the  Pyrenees  to  the  Mediterranean  was  now  under 
Christian  rule,  and  for  their  zeal  in  the  cause  of  the  faith 
the  pope  bestowed  upon  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  the  title 
of  the  Catholic  Kings.  This  title  is  to-day  still  borne  by  the 
king  of  Spain. 

Up  to  this  time,  because  of  the  continual  warfare  with  the 
Moors,  Spain  had  entered  but  little  into  the  life  of  Europe. 
It  had  been  untouched  by  the  great  movements  which  had 
helped  to  develop  the  other  great  states  of  western  Europe. 
The  feudal  system  had  never  gained  a  footing  there ;  as  a 
nation  it  had  never  taken  part  in  the  Crusades,  and  had 


168  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

remained  unmoved  by  the  tremendous  religious  enthusiasm 
which  had  swept  over  other  countries. 

Now  late  in  the  day  that  enthusiasm  awoke  in  the  Spanish 
rulers,  and  was  turned  to  religious  fanaticism  and  intolerance. 
With  the  passing  of  years  this  fanaticism  increased  until, 
from  being  the  most  liberal,  Spain  became  the  most  intolerant 
of  Catholic  states.  Persecution  began  with  the  Jews. 

1492  They  were  offered  the  hard  choice  of  denying  their  faith 
or  of  leaving  the  country,  and  many  chose  the  latter  course. 

1502  Next  came  the  turn  of  the  remaining  Moors,  they  being 
offered  the  same  hard  choice ;  most  of  them,  like  the  Jews, 
chose  to  go  into  exile  rather  than  deny  their  faith.  The 
departure  of  both  these  peoples  was  a  loss  to  Spain.  For 
they  were  clever  and  industrious,  and  much  of  the  trade  and 
any  manufactures  there  were  lay  in  their  hands. 

This  was  all  the  greater  loss  as  now  Spain  began  to  be 
of  importance  in  Europe.  The  royal  family  was  allied  by 
marriage  with  other  ruling  houses  of  Europe,  and  Ferdinand 
is  said  to  have  been  the  first  monarch  to  send  resident 
ambassadors  to  the  courts  of  other  states.  By  this  means 
friendly  intercourse  with  neighbouring  countries  was  estab- 
lished and  maintained,  international  trade  was  encouraged, 
and  as  the  custom  increased,  quarrels  which  before  could 
only  have  been  wiped  out  in  blood  were  settled  by  negotia- 
tion. And  however  much  the  maintaining  of  ambassa- 
dors at  foreign  courts  has  been  abused  in  later  times, 
in  the  beginning  it  was  a  step  towards  international 
understanding  and  towards  lessening  the  frequency  of 
wars. 


MARITIME  EXPANSION  169 

CHAPTER  XXXIII 

CHANGES  IN  EUROPE  CAUSED  BY  THE 
DISCOVERY  OF  THE  NEW  WORLD 

IN  the  fifteenth  century  Spain  and  Portugal  were,  so  to 
speak,  new  countries.  They  had  only  newly  been  admitted 
into  the  family  of  Europe.  Their  own  constant  wars  with 
the  Moors  had  left  them  no  time  to  join  in  the  wars  and 
politics  of  Europe.  Their  religious  toleration  had  kept 
them  free  from  papal  influences.  They  had  not  even  joined 
to  any  great  extent  in  the  commerce  of  Europe.  For  of 
all  the  countries  of  western  Europe  they  wrere  in  the  least 
advantageous  position  for  trade.  They  were,  as  it  were,  at 
the  end  of  the  world. 

All  trade  was  with  the  East.  The  Mediterranean  was  the 
great  trade  route.  Ports  near  the  centre  of  this  route  with 
good  water-ways  and  roads  behind  them,  by  which  goods 
could  be  distributed  throughout  Europe,  were  likely  to 
prosper.  Thus  Genoa  and  Venice  grew  into  wealthy  and 
powerful  merchant  republics.  Spain,  at  the  extreme  west 
end  of  the  route,  with  water-ways  short  and  of  little  use 
commercially,  cut  off,  moreover,  from  the  rest  of  the  con- 
tinent by  the  Pyrenees,  in  spite  of  a  Mediterranean  seaboard, 
shared  little  in  its  commerce.  Aragon,  indeed,  to  some  ex- 
tent, did  take  part  in  the  commerce  of  the  world,  and  the 
ships  of  Barcelona  carried  many  a  rich  cargo.  But  Castile, 
even  after  the  union  of  the  crowns  of  Castile  and  Aragon, 
did  not  benefit  by  this  at  all.  For  although  it  had  some 
Mediterranean  seaboard  it  had  no  good  port.  Portugal, 
having  no  Mediterranean  seaboard,  and  the  ports  of  the 
North  Sea  and  the  Baltic  being  for  the  most  part  in  the 
hands  of  the  Hansa  merchants,  was  almost  entirely  cut  off 
from  the  trade  of  the  world. 

But  in  the  fifteenth  century,  vigorous  in  their  new-found 


170  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

nationality,  both  Portuguese  and  Spaniards  began  to  seek 
outlets  for  their  energies.  Such  outlets  were  not  easy  to 
find.  For  Venice  controlled  the  ports  of  Syria  and  of  Egypt, 
and  the  route  to  India  by  way  of  the  Red  Sea.  Since  the 
fall  of  Constantinople  Christian  traders  had  been  driven 
from  the  Black  Sea  and  the  trade  routes  to  Asia  in  that 
direction.  Indeed,  as  years  went  on,  the  Turks  hampered 
more  and  more  all  expansion  of  Christian  trade  eastward. 

Henry  the  Navigator 

The  Portuguese,  therefore,  were  obliged  to  seek  an  outlet 
in  another  direction.  The  idea  occurred  to  some  of  the  more 
daring  spirits  that  it  might  be  possible  to  reach  India  by 
sailing  round  Africa.  So  they  began,  timidly  at  first,  and 
then  more  boldly,  to  explore  the  west  coast  of  Africa.  The 
way  to  India  was  not  discovered,  but  a  lucrative  trade  in 
negroes  and  gold-dust  rapidly  grew  up.  Year  by  year  in 
their  gay  little  boats  the  Portuguese  ventured  farther  and 
farther  afield.  The  Canary  Islands,  Madeira,  and  the  Azores 
were  all  discovered,  or  rather  rediscovered,  for  they  had 
been  known  to  the  ancients.  Soon  they  were  to  some 
extent  colonized,  and  their  products,  such  as  honey,  maize, 
and  fruits,  were  added  to  the  growing  trade  of  Portugal. 

1394-  In  all  these  discoveries  and  adventures  in  colonization  the 
'  Portuguese  were  encouraged  and  helped  by  Prince  Henry  of 
Portugal  who,  because  of  his  enthusiasm  in  these  matters, 
has  been  given  the  name  of  Henry  the  Navigator.  His 
great  ambition  was  to  find  the  way  to  India  by  rounding 
Africa.  But  headland  after  headland  along  the  coast  was 
passed,  and  still  there  seemed  no  end  to  it,  and  Henry  died 
with  his  dream  unfulfilled. 

1488  At  length  the  new  way  to  India  was  discovered  by  accident. 
Driven  by  a  storm  Bartholomew  Diaz  rounded  the  Cape  of 
Good  Hope,  and  sailed  some  way  up  the  eastern  coast  of 
Africa.  As  it  was  a  storm  which  had  led  to  his  discovery 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  AMERICA  171 

Diaz  called  the  Cape  the  Cape  of  Storms.  But  when  he 
returned  home  with  his  news,  and  men  became  assured  that 
at  last  the  new  way  was  found  to  India  and  the  lands  of 
spice,  they  changed  the  name  to  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope. 

Ten  years,  however,  passed  before  the  attempt  to  reach 
India   by   that   route   succeeded.     Then   Vasco   da   Gama 
rounded  the  Cape,  steered  across  the  Indian  Ocean,  reached  1498 
India,  and  returned  to  Lisbon  in  triumph  with  a  rich  cargo. 
But  before  this  a  still  more  wonderful  voyage  had  been  made. 
Christopher    Columbus    had    sailed    across    the    Atlantic,  1492- 
discovering,  as  he  thought,  yet  another  way  to  India. 

Christopher  Columbus 

The  ancients  had  believed  that  the  world  was  flat.     But 
gradually  many  people  had  come  to  think  that  it  was  round. 
Among  these  was  Christopher  Columbus,  the  Genoese  sailor.  1445?- 
This  being  so,  it  must  be  possible,  he  argued,  to  reach  India  1506 
by  sailing  west  just  as  easily  as  by  sailing  east.     If  this  way 
could  be  found  all  the  dangers  from  Mohammedan  pirates, 
all  the  difficulties  of  land  transport  across  the  desert,  from 
the  Red  Sea  to  the  Mediterranean,  would  be  avoided,  and 
great  fame  and  fortune  would  accrue  to  the  people  who  should 
find  and  make  use  of  the  new  way. 

Columbus  was  filled  with  a  passionate  belief  in  his  theory. 
But  he  was  only  a  poor  man,  and  had  neither  the  power  nor 
the  money  needed  to  fit  out  an  expedition  of  discovery.  So 
he  spent  long  years  in  a  fruitless  endeavour  to  enlist  the 
sympathy  of  those  who  were  wealthy  and  powerful.  He 
carried  his  great  idea  first  to  the  court  of  Portugal  and  then 
to  that  of  Spain.  But  everywhere  he  was  met  with  prejudice 
and  disbelief.  Kings  and  courtiers  alike  looked  upon  him 
as  a  crazy  adventurer.  At  length,  however,  he  gained  the 
ear  of  Queen  Isabella.  She  became  fired  with  something  of 
his  own  enthusiasm,  and  promised  him  the  aid  he  needed. 

So  at  last,  on  August  3,  1492,  Columbus  set  out  on  his 


172  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

perilous  adventure.  TcT  most  people,  indeed,  the  adventure 
seemed  not  only  perilous  but  mad,  and  they  never  expected 
to  see  any  of  those  who  took  part  in  it  again.  But  in  little 
more  than  seven  months  Columbus  returned  triumphant, 
having  proved  the  truth  of  his  theory,  and  found,  as  he 
thought,  a  new  way  to  India.  He  had  done  something  much 
more  wonderful.  He  had  discovered  a  new  world.  But 
although  Columbus  made  several  voyages  across  the  Atlantic, 
and  even  landed  on  the  continent  of  South  America,  he  never 
discovered  his  mistake.  He  died  believing  that  his  great 
title  to  fame  was  in  having  discovered  a  new  way  to  India. 

New  Trade  Routes 

The  exploration  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa,  the  discovery 
of  the  route  to  India  by  way  of  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope,  and 
the  discovery  of  the  lands  beyond  the  Atlantic,  completely 
changed  the  face  of  Europe.  The  ocean  and  not  the  Mediter- 
ranean became  the  chief  trade  route,  and  the  merchant 
cities  such  as  Venice  and  Genoa  lost  their  importance.  The 
countries  fronting  the  Atlantic  were  no  longer  at  the  end  of 
the  world,  but  in  its  centre.  Spain,  Portugal,  the  Nether- 
lands, and  England  became  the  great  sea-going  and,  there- 
fore, the  great  commercial  nations  of  Europe. 

Spain  and  Portugal,  indeed,  tried  to  shut  out  all  other 
lands  from  a  share  in  the  new  commerce.  Soon  after 
Columbus  returned  from  his  first  voyage  the  Spanish  per- 

1493  suaded  Pope  Alexander  VI  to  issue  a  bull  which  gave  to 
them  all  heathen  lands  which  had  been,  or  might  be,  dis- 
covered west  of  an  imaginary  line  drawn  from  pole  to  pole, 
west  of  the  Azores  and  Cape  Verde  Islands.  All  lands  dis- 
covered east  of  this  line  were  to  belong  to  Portugal.  But 
powerful  although  the  pope  was,  other  lands  were  not 

1496  easily  persuaded  to  allow  Spain  and  Portugal  to  reap  all 
the  rich  harvest  of  the  seas.  In  1496  Henry  VII  of  England 
sent  Cabot  across  the  Atlantic  to  claim  for  England  any 


174  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

lands  he  might  find.  The  French,  too,  disregai  ded  the  pope's 
bull.  "  I  fain  would  see  Father  Adam's  will,"  cried  King 
Francis  of  France,  "  wherein  he  made  you  the  sole  heirs  of 
so  vast  an  inheritance,"  and  he,  too,  sent  out  explorers  to 
claim  lands  for  France. 

But  in  the  new  prosperity  which  resulted  in  this  sea- 
going activity  the  Netherlands  for  a  time  took  the  lead.  For 
Spain  and  Portugal  were  busy  strengthening  their  hold  on 
the  Indies,  England  had  its  domestic  troubles,  and  France 
was  wasting  its  energies  on  a  dream  of  dominion  in  Italy. 
So  most  of  the  carrying  trade  fell  to  the  share  of  the  Nether- 
lands, and  Antwerp  for  a  time  took  the  place  which  Venice 
had  once  held  as  the  centre  of  the  world's  co.nmerce. 

Soon  among  the  sea-going  nations  there  grew  up  a  keen 
rivalry  for  possession  of  the  new  lands  which  every  day 
were  being  discovered,  and  wars  arose  out  of  this  rivalry. 
Nations  fought  in  Europe  for  supremacy  in  the  New  World. 
Politics  and  commerce  became  strangely  mixed,  and  it  is 
hard  to  know  sometimes  where  the  ambition  of  kings  ends 
and  the  enterprise  of  commerce  begins. 


CHAPTER  XXXIV 
THE   PROGRESS   OF  RUSSIA 

IN  all  the  new  activity  and  expansion  which  was  taking  place 
in  Europe  at  this  time  three  powers  took  no  part.  These 
were  Russia,  Italy,  and  Germany.  Italy  and  Germany, 
by  reason  of  their  wars  and  discord,  Russia  because  it  had 
not  yet  risen  above  the  horizon. 

After  the  foundation  of  Russia  by  the  Northmen  (see 
Chapter  XIII)  it  had,  in  the  thirteenth  century,  been 
conquered  by  the  fierce  Tartar  horde§  ^ho  swept  into, 


RUSSIA  FREED  FROM  THE  TARTARS        175 

Europe  from  Asia.  For  more  than  two  hundred  years 
these  Tartars  held  Russia  in  subjection,  and  the  proud 
princes,  who  traced  their  descent  from  Rurick  the  Northman 
freebooter,  were  forced  to  pay  tribute  to  their  Asiatic 
conquerors.  But  at  length  the  Tartar  rule  began  to  weaken, 
a  spirit  of  resistance  awoke  among  the  Russians,  and  after  a  1361  - 
fierce  and  long  struggle  they  threw  off  the  yoke  of  Asia. 

The  princes  of  Moscow  were  the  first  to  break  the  domina- 
tion of  the  Tartars.  Moscow,  in  consequence,  became  the 
capital,  and  the  whole  of  Russia  took  the  name  of  Muskovy. 
Then,  having  broken  the  power  of  the  Tartars,  the  princes 
of  Moscow  set  themselves  to  unite  Russia  under  one  sceptre. 
This  was  done  by  Ivan  III  the  Great,  his  son  Basil  III,  and 
his  grandson  Ivan  IV  the  Terrible,  their  three  reigns  stretch- 
ing over  a  period  of  a  hundred  and  twenty-two  years  (1462- 

1584). 

So  much  of  this  work  of  union  was  done  by  Ivan  the  Great  1462- 
that  he  received  the  name  of  Binder  of  the  Russian  Lands.  1505 
But  in  order  to  bind  the  land  together  he  crushed  out  lesser 
rulers  with  an  utterly  ruthless  hand,  and  indeed  deserved 
the  name  of  Terrible  almost  as  much  as  his  grandson. 

Basil  III  followed  in  his  father's  footsteps,  although  he  1505- 
was  neither  so  brilliant  nor  so  ruthless.     He  consolidated  his  1533 
dominions,  and  added  to  them.     All  he  did  he  did  as  an 
autocrat,  throwing  into  prison,  and  cutting  off  the  heads  of 
any  who  dared  to  question  his  will  or  authority.     And  when 
he  died,  leaving  a  child  of  three  to  succeed  him,  the  land 
was  once  more  given  over  to  anarchy  and  confusion. 

Ivan  IV,  the  Terrible 

While   the   great   nobles   fought    for   power   the   future  1533- 
terrible  czar  wandered  about  neglected  and  forsaken.     He 
was  clothed  like  a  beggar,  and  often  knew  what  it  was  to  be 
hungry  as  well  as  cold  and  lonely.     But  utterly  neglected 
though  he  was  he  learned  to  read,  and  his  favourite  books, 


176  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

were  the  Bible  and  books  of  history.  In  all  the  books  he 
read  the  Jewish  kings,  the  rulers  of  Babylon  and  Egypt, 
the  emperors  of  Rome  and  Greece,  were  called  czars,  and 
little  Ivan  determined  that  he  also  should  be  called  czar.  So 
he  read,  and  thought,  and  bided  his  time.  Then  when  he 
was  seventeen  he  ordered  preparation  for  his  coronation  to 
be  made,  and  insisted  on  being  crowned  not  as  Grand  Duke 
1547  but  as  Czar  of  all  the  Russias. 

It  was  already  a  large  territory  over  which  this  first  of 
all  the  czars  now  began  to  rule.  But  it  had  one  great 
defect.  It  was  almost  entirely  an  inland  country.  Save 
for  the  Arctic  Ocean,  it  had  no  seaboard  at  all.  All  the 
shores  of  the  Baltic  were  in  the  hands  of  Swedes,  Poles,  and 
of  the  Brothers  of  the  Sword,  a  German  military  order 
founded  to  convert  the  heathen  of  the  Baltic,  but  which,  at 
the  same  time,  carried  on  constant  wars  of  aggression  against 
Russia,  and  played  a  great  part  in  the  expansion  of  Germany 
eastwards.  In  the  south,  Russia  was  shut  out  from  the  Black 
Sea  and  the  Caspian  by  the  Mongols.  Here  we  see  the  reason 
why  Russia  took  no  part  in  the  great  seafaring  adventures 
which  were  stirring  western  Europe.  Hemmed  in  from  the 
sea  on  every  side  by  jealous  neighbours,  and  at  the  same  time 
struggling  towards  unity,  the  nation  had  no  energy  for  ex- 
ploration. Russia  was  shut  out  from  the  family  of  Europe. 
It  was  indeed  hardly  in  any  sense  a  European  country  at  all. 

Struggles  for  a  Seaboard 

But  Ivan  IV  desired  to  enter  into  the  family  of  Europe. 
In  that  way  alone  he  saw  he  could  make  his  country  great, 
and  he  determined  to  "  open  a  window  into  Europe."  To 
do  that  he  knew  he  must  have  a  seaboard.  So  he  fought 
the  Mongols  on  his  southern  borders  and  conquered  Astrakan. 
Thus,  by  way  of  the  Volga  and  the  Caspian,  he  opened  up  a 
trade  route  to  Persia  and  the  East.  But  for  a  Baltic  port 
he  fought  in  vain.  The  Brothers  of  the  Sword,  indeed,  were 


RUSSIAN  EXPANSION  177 

dispersed,  but  Poland  and  Sweden  remained  masters  of  the 
Baltic  shores.  Not  until  a  hundred  and  fifty  years  later, 
under  a  greater  czar  than  Ivan,  was  Russia  to  obtain  the 
coveted  seaboard  on  the  Baltic. 

But  although,  through  Teutonic  jealousy,  the  Baltic 
was  closed  to  their  traders,  the  Russians  had  a  seaboard  to 
the  north.  The  entrance  to  it  lay  indeed  within  the  Arctic 
Circle,  and  for  many  months  of  the  year  it  was  closed  by  ice. 
But  English  sailors  were  busy  seeking  new  passages  to  the 
East  "  by  the  high  way  of  the  seas,"  and  while  in  search  for 
a  north-east  passage  to  China  they  found  Russia. 

Very  soon,  by  way  of  this  icy  northern  route  a  brisk 
trade  grew  up  between  England  and  Russia.  Dutch, 
Spanish,  Italian,  and  French  merchants  followed  them, 
but  the  English,  who  had  been  first  in  the  field,  kept  the  bulk 
of  the  trade. 

Thus,  in  spite  of  the  jealousy  of  Germans,  Poles,  and 
Swedes,  "  a  window  was  opened  into  Europe."  Had  it  not 
been  for  this  jealousy  Russia  would  have  developed  much 
faster  than  it  did.  But  all  these  nations  feared  lest  Russia 
should  become  powerful,  and  did  their  best  to  shut  her 
out  from  the  commerce,  the  learning,  the  industries,  and  the 
weapons  of  warfare  of  western  Europe.  It  is  even  said  that 
the  king  of  Sweden  threatened  with  death  the  English 
sailors  and  adventurers  who  tried  to  trade  with  Russia.  So 
in  her  struggle  towards  civilization  Russia  was  hindered  and 
thwarted,  and  remained  for  long  years  to  come  what  the 
Tartar  domination  had  made  it,  an  Asiatic  Empire. 

Yet,  in  spite  of  every  hindrance  Ivan  the  Terrible  left 
his  Empire  stronger  and  more  advanced  than  he  had  found  it. 
He  was  a  strange  mixture  of  savagery  and  greatness.  As  a 
statesman  he  was  far  ahead  of  his  times,  and  he  understood 
the  needs  of  his  kingdom  better  than  any  man.  But  he  was 
cruel  and  vicious,  and  had  an  ungovernable  temper.  An 
Englishman  who  lived  in  those  days  has  described  him  as  "  a 

M 


178  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

goodlie  man  of  person  .  .  .  full  of  readie  wisdom,  cruell, 
bloudye,  merciles."  For  the  first  fourteen  years  of  his  reign 
Ivan  showed  his  "  readie  wisdom  "  well  and  wisely.  It  was 
towards  the  end  of  his  life  that  he  proved  himself  "  bloudye  " 
and  "merciles"  and  earned  his  surname  of  the  Terrible. 
Then  he  crushed  the  great  nobles  with  a  pitiless  hand, 
massacring  them  and  their  families,  and  laying  waste  the 
land  with  brutal  fury. 

After  the  death  of  Ivan  the  Terrible  Russia 'again  fell  on 
troublous  times.  His  dynasty  soon  died  out,  and  in  1613, 
1613-  after  a  great  uprising  of  the  people,  Michael  Romanoff  who, 
through  a  female  side  of  his  family,  traced  his  descent  from 
Rurick,  was  chosen  czar.  He  had  no  great  talent  or  ability, 
but  he  was  the  first  of  the  house  which  was  to  rule  over  Russia 
until  the  abdication  of  his  descendant  Nicholas  in  1918. 


CHAPTER  XXXV 
THE  RISE  OF  SWITZERLAND 

IT  was  during  the  fight  for  the  Empire  between  Lewis  IV 
and  Frederick  the  Handsome  (see  Chapter  XXX)  that  the 
Swiss  struggle  for  freedom  began.  From  the  eleventh 
century  the  land  now  known  as  Switzerland  had  been  part 
of  the  Empire.  As  a  nation  it  did  not  then  exist,  but  was 
divided  into  cantons.*  One  of  these  cantons  was  called 
Schwyz,  and  in  time  it  gave  its  name  to  the  whole  country. 
The  mountaineers  who  lived  in  these  cantons  were  a  brave 
and  freedom-loving  people,  but  they  paid  a  loyal,  if  somewhat 
shadowy,  allegiance  to  the  emperor.  Now  the  Hapsburgs, 
who  were  dukes  of  Austria,  tried  to  convert  these  cantons 
into  a  mere  family  possession.  This  the  Swiss  resisted  with 

*  See  map,  p.  183. 


THE  SWISS  STRUGGLE  FOR  FREEDOM      179 

all  their  strength,  and  three  forest  cantons,  Schwyz,  Uri, 
and  Unterwarden,  formed  themselves  into  a  league  for 
national  protection  and  defence. 

William  Tell 

Of  the  beginning  of  this  resistance,  in  the  early  part  of  the 
fourteenth  century,  William  Tell  is  the  hero.  Tell  has  been 
proved  to  the  satisfaction  of  most  people  to  be  a  myth.  But 
the  story,  at  least,  illustrates  how  irksome  the  servile  homage, 
demanded  by  a  feudal  overlord,  had  become  to  men  who  had 
grown  to  respect  themselves,  and  had  ceased  to  look  upon 
themselves  as  mere  chattels. 

The  first  great  battle  for  Swiss  freedom  was  fought  at 
Morgarten  between  the  League  and  the  Austrians  in  1315. 
The  Austrians  were  led  by  Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  fighting 
in  the  interests  of  his  brother  Frederick.  His  army  was 
filled  with  the  flower  of  Austrian  knighthood,  but  it  went 
down  before  the  untrained  mountaineers  fighting  for  free- 
dom. This  first  great  victory  had  two  results.  It  checked 
the  rule  of  Austria  over  the  three  forest  states,  and  it 
bound  them  closer  together. 

Lewis  was  not  ill-pleased  to  see  the  House  of  Austria  thus 
defeated,  and  he  rather  favoured  the  League,  which  during 
his  reign  grew  considerably  stronger.  What  the  Swiss 
fought  for  was  not  severance  from  the  Empire,  but  freedom 
from  the  oppressions  of  the  House  of  Austria.  The  dukes  of 
Austria,  however,  were  by  no  means  minded  to  lose  their 
powrer  over  these  mountaineers  and  cowkeepers.  So,  save 
when  they  were  too  deeply  engaged  with  schemes  in  other 
parts  of  the  Empire,  they  carried  on  a  fairly  constant  warfare 
against  the  Swiss. 

These  wars  availed  Austria  little,  while  the  Confederation 
grew   constantly  stronger.     At   length,  seventy-one   years 
after  Morgarten,  in  the  reign  of  Wenceslaus,  the  besotted  1386 
son  of  Charles  IV,  the  Austrians  were  again  utterly  defeated 


i8o  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

at  the  battle  of  Sempach.  In  this  battle,  as  at  the  battle 
of  Morgarten,  they  were  again  led  by  a  Leopold  of  Austria, 
a  nephew  of  the  former  duke. 

Arnold  von  Winkelried 

It  was  at  Sempach  that  the  patriot  Arnold  von  Winkelried 
is  said  to  have  laid  down  his  life  for  his  country.  The 
Austrian  nobles  stood  a  firm  and  glittering  mass,  and  in 
spite  of  all  their  bravery  the  Swiss  were  unable  to  break 
through  their  lines.  Seeing  this  Winkelried  determined 
to  force  a  way  through. 

"  Comrades,"  he  said,  "I  will  make  a  way  for  you." 
Then  spreading  his  arms  wide  and  crying  aloud,  "  Make  way 
for  Liberty,"  he  ran  upon  the  bristling  spears,  and  gathering 
as  many  as  he  could  to  his  breast,  sank  dying  to  the  ground. 
The  wall  of  steel  was  broken,  and  through  the  breach  thus 
made  the  Swiss  marched  to  victory. 

1388  Two  years  after  Sempach  the  Swiss  won  another  victory 
at  Nafels.  By  these  two  battles  the  power  of  Austria  over 
the  Confederacy  was  shattered.  The  Hapsburgs  resigned 
their  claims,  and  signed  a  peace  for  seven  years.  This  peace 
was  renewed  from  time  to  time,  and  for  many  a  long  day  the 
brave  mountaineers  were  left  to  themselves,  and  gradually 
grew  stronger  as  more  towns  and  cantons  joined  the  League. 

In  1439  Albert,  duke  of  Austria,  was  elected  emperor. 
From  that  date  until  1806,  when  Francis  II  resigned  his  empty 
title,  in  spite  of  a  show  of  election,  the  title  remained  with 
hardly  a  break  hereditary  in  the  Hapsburg  family,  Charles 
V  and  Francis  I  being  the  only  emperors  not  of  the  House 
of  Austria. 

Zurich  and  Austria 

During  the  reign  of  Albert's  son,  Frederick  III,  the  Swiss 
were  involved  in  civil  war.  Zurich,  one  of  the  cantons,  con- 
cluded a  separate  alliance  with  Austria.  This  caused  such 


THE  SWISS  RECOGNIZED  AS  A  NATION      181 

anger  in  the  Confederacy  that  they  made  war  against  Zurich. 
The  emperor  then  made  an  alliance  with  France,  and  in 
spite  of  the  fact  that  France  was  still  in  the  throes  of  the 
Hundred  Years'  War,  obtained  from  him  an  army  of  thirty 
thousand  soldiers  under  the  Dauphin  Louis.  This  army 
was  little  more  than  a  rabble  of  hungry  adventurers,  but  it 
was  twice  as  large  as  the  Swiss  army,  and  at  St.  Jacob's,  near  1444 
Basle,  the  Swiss  were  defeated. 

Yet  although  the  Swiss  lost  the  battle  they  had  made  such 
a  brave  fight  that  it  counted  as  one  more  step  towards 
freedom.  The  war  continued,  and  five  years  later  Zurich 
gave  up  its  alliance  with  Austria  and  was  again  received 
into  the  Confederacy. 

Twenty-six  years  after  the  battle  of  St.  Jacob's  the  Swiss 
made  an  alliance  with  Louis  XI,  who,  as  Dauphin,  had  de- 
feated them.  Secretly  encouraged  by  the  wily  Louis,  they 
became  embroiled  in  war  with  his  great  enemy  Charles  of 
Burgundy.  In  two  great  battles,  one  at  Granson  and  one 
at  Morat,  they  utterly  defeated  him.  The  following  year  1476 
Charles  was  killed  in  a  battle  near  Nancy. 

These  victories  welded  the  Confederates  still  more  closely 
together,  and  from  now  onward  they  began  to  be  looked  upon 
as  a  nation,  and  received  the  name  of  Swiss. 

This  new  nation  was  still  in  name  part  of  the  Empire, 
but  it  was,  in  fact,  quite  independent.  The  Swiss  had  not 
fought  against  the  Empire  but  against  the  House  of  Austria. 
The  emperors  were  now,  however,  continuously  drawn  from 
the  Hapsburgs,  and  showed  an  inherited  desire  to  subdue 
Switzerland.  This  the  Swiss  resisted. 

They  were  now  so  strong  that  they  had  no  need  of  pro- 
tection from  the  Empire,  which,  indeed,  was  in  no  condition  to 
give  protection,  and  had  itself  become  a  feeble  shadow. 
They  were  able,  by  their  own  authority,  to  keep  the  peace 
within  their  own  borders,  and  they  had  no  need  to  have  the 
king's  peace  thrust  upon  them. 


182  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Yet  the  emperors  still  obstinately  regarded  the  country  as 
part  of  the  Empire,  and  in  1499  tne  Emperor  Maximilian  I 
again  tried  to  force  the  Swiss  to  acknowledge  his  sway  and 
began  a  campaign  against  them. 

But  in  this  war  he  got  little  aid  from  the  Empire  as  a  whole, 
for  most  of  the  states  regarded  it  as  a  purely  Austrian 
quarrel.  The  Swiss,  on  the  other  hand,  fought  with  the 
glorious  courage  which  comes  to  a  small  nation  fighting  for 
its  very  existence  against  the  overweening  pride  of  mili- 
tarism. And  they  won.  After  eight  months  of  bitter 
struggle  Maximilian  was  defeated  and  forced  to  conclude  the 

Peace  of  Peace  of  Basle. 

J^lg6  After  this  Switzerland  was  practically  independent, 
but  this  independence  was  not  openly  acknowledged  until 
the  Peace  of  Westphalia  in  1648. 

The  many  victories  which  the  Swiss  had  won  over  their 
powerful  foes  had  gained  for  them  a  great  reputation  as 
fighters,  and  from  the  time  of  their  wars  with  Charles  the 
Bold  onward  all  the  rulers  in  Europe,  but  especially  the 
French,  became  eager  to  have  Swiss  soldiers  in  their  armies. 
In  consequence,  Switzerland  became  a  sort  of  "  market  of 
men,"  and  in  almost  every  great  campaign  Swiss  mercen- 
aries were  to  be  found  fighting  on  one  side  or  another.  It 
was  not  until  the  nineteenth  century  that  many  of  the  can- 
tons forbade  foreign  enlistment.  Yet,  strange  to  say,  in 
spite  of  fighting  thus  on  any  side  for  which  they  were  paid 
to  fight,  the  Swiss  kept  their  own  nationality,  and  amid  the 
broils  of  Europe  the  little  republic  has  remained  safe  and 
intact. 

1440-  In  the  reign  of  Frederick,  under  whom  the  Swiss  practi- 
cally secured  their  freedom,  the  Empire  sank  to  its  lowest. 
It  was  shorn  of  its  dependencies,  war  raged  everywhere 
throughout  the  land,  the  great  princes  each  struggling  to 
increase  their  power  and  wealth  while  the  Empire  was  re- 
duced to  the  last  stage  of  beggary.  Yet  the  lower  the 


184  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Empire  sank  the  greater  grew  the  arrogance  of  the  Emperor, 
and  Frederick  took  for  his  motto  the  letters  A.E.I.O.U., 
which  stood  for  the  Latin  Austria  Est  Imperare  Orbi 
Universe,  or  in  German,  Alles  Erdreich  1st  Oesterreich  Unter- 
than. 

But  while  the  wearer  of  this  proud  motto  sat  upon  the 
throne  Constantinople  fell  before  the  Turks.  They  overran 
Europe,  reaching  even  to  the  borders  of  Austria,  and  the 
emperor  raised  no  finger  to  stay  their  course.  It  was  left 
to  the  Poles  and  the  Hungarians  to  sweep  back  the  Moslem 
tide  which  threatened  to  overwhelm  the  Western  even  as  it 
had  overwhelmed  the  Eastern  Empire. 

While  Frederick  arrogantly  proclaimed  the  subjection  of 
all  the  realms  of  earth  to  Austria,  dauntless  adventurers  were 
sailing  unknown  seas,  revealing  new  and  undreamed  of 
lands.  But  Germany  without  unity  or  nationality  had  no 
part  in  these  discoveries,  and  neither  then  nor  later  did  she 
share  the  heritage  of  Europe  in  the  New  World. 

Maximilian  I 

In  1493  Maximilian,  the  son  of  Frederick  III,  succeeded 
his  father  as  emperor.  He  was  the  first  who  took  the  title  of 
emperor  without  waiting  to  go  to  Rome  to  be  crowned  by 
the  pope.  Up  to  this  time  the  German  overlord  had  only 
been  styled  king  of  the  Romans  until  crowned  by  the  pope. 
But  Italy  was  at  this  time  full  of  war,  and  the  journey  to  Rome 
was  one  of  difficulty  and  danger.  So  in  1508  Maximilian 
announced  that  he  intended  to  take  the  title  of  emperor. 
1503-  The  pope,  Julius  II,  was  anxious  to  have  Maximilian  on  his 
1513  gjde  m  hjs  Italian  wars,  so  he  gave  his  consent.  After  this 
all  the  emperors  took  the  title  on  their  election,  and  only 
one  (Charles  V)  went  to  Rome  to  be  crowned. 

In  his  own  time  Maximilian  was  one  of  the  best  loved  of 
German  emperors.  Yet  he  never  did  anything  for  the  Em- 
pire. He  was  constantly  at  war,  and  nearly  always  defeated. 


THE  LAST  OF  THE  KNIGHTS  185 

He  has  been  called  the  last  of  the  knights,  yet  he  did  more 
than  any  other  Continental  ruler  to  kill  knighthood,  for  he 
was  one  of  the  first  to  follow  the  example  of  England  and 
organize  foot  soldiers  for  his  army  to  take  the  place  of  the 
splendid  but  useless  mounted  knights. 

He  was  vainglorious  and  vacillating,  and  succeeded  in 
little.  Yet  through  him  great  European  complications 
were  to  arise.  In  1477,  long  before  he  became  emperor,* 
he  married  Mary  of  Burgundy,  the  daughter  of  Charles  the 
Bold,  who  fought  the  Swiss.  Through  her  he  became 
possessed  of  Burgundy  and  the  Netherlands.  When  Maxi- 
milian became  emperor  he  gave  the  government  of  the 
Netherlands  to  his  son  Philip.  This  son  married  Joanna, 
the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isabella  of  Spain,  and  thus 
Spain  and  the  Netherlands  became  united.  All  this  had 
important  results  for  Europe. 


LIST  OF  EMPERORS 

Rudolf  I  of  Hapsburg,  1273-1291. 

Albert  I  of  Hapsburg,  1298-1308. 

Henry  VII  of  Luxemburg,  1308-1313. 
(Lewis  IV  of  Bavaria,  1314-1347. 
(Frederick  the  Fair  of  Hapsburg,  1314-1330, 

Charles  IV  of  Luxemburg,  1347-1378. 

Wenzel  of  Luxemburg,  1378-1400. 

Rupert  of  the  Palatinate,  1400-1410. 

Sigismund  of  Luxemburg,  1410-1438. 

Albert  II  of  Hapsburg,  1438-1439. 

Frederick  III  of  Hapsburg,  1440-1493. 

Maximilian  I  of  Hapsburg,  1493-1519. 

*  See  genealogical  table,  p.  215. 


i86  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CHAPTER  XXXVI 

THE  BEGINNING   OF  ITALIAN 
UNITY  SHATTERED 

ALL  the  states  of  which  we  have  so  far  heard  had,  by  the 
end  of  the  fifteenth  century,  passed  through  the  formative 
stage.  They  had  all  consolidated  into  nationality  except 
Germany,  which  was  still  a  conglomeration  of  states,  and 
Italy,  which  was  yet  without  nationality,  unity,  or  central 
government. 

This  was  chiefly  due  to  the  efforts  of  Germany  to  impose 
German  rule  upon  the  Italians.  Frederick  II,  who  was 
Italian  rather  than  German,  was  the  last,  and  almost  the 
only,  German  emperor  who  had  in  this  any  chance  of  success 
(see  Chapter  XXVII).  He  failed,  and  after  him  the  emperors 
interfered  little,  and  always  with  disastrous  results,  in  the 
affairs  of  Italy. 

Yet  Italy  found  no  peace,  and  until  the  middle  of  the 
fourteenth  century  it  was  torn  by  civil  wars.  Princely 
families  rose  and  fell,  while  more  than  one  despot  schemed 
in  vain  to  draw  the  whole  country  under  his  rule.  The 
rival  factions  were  still  called  Guelph  and  Ghibeline,  but 
the  real  struggle  was  no  longer  between  pope  and  emperor. 
It  was  rather  between  feudalism  and  commerce,  between 
inaction  and  progress. 

Out  of  this  welter  of  warfare  there  arose  in  Italy,  towards 
the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century,  five  chief  powers.  The 
largest  of  these  was  the  kingdom  of  Naples.  This  included 
the  whole  southern  portion  of  the  peninsula  as  well  as  the 
island  of  Sicily.  Then,  like  a  wedge  across  the  centre  of  the 
peninsula  la}'  the  papal  states.  North  of  these  were  the 
republics  of  Florence  and  of  Venice  and  the  Duchy  of  Milan. 


States  of  the  Church... 

Venice 

Milan 

Othfr  States  and  Republics 

9s  named. 

Cities  of  the  Lombard  League 

underlined:-  Milan 


ITALY  OF  THE  RENAISSANCE 


i88  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Florence  and  Venice  were  termed  republics,  but  the  rule 
in  them,  as  in  all  Italian  states,  tended  to  despotism.  And 
despotism  brought  in  its  train  the  usual  crop  of  plots  and 
murders.  Yet,  in  spite  of  this  tendency  towards  despotism 
Italy  had  made  some  advance  towards  freedom  and  nation- 
ality in  that  her  despots  were  all  Italian,  and  not  imposed 
upon  her  by  an  alien  power.  Even  Alfonso,  king  of  Naples, 
a  Spaniard  by  birth,  was  Italian  in  his  sympathies. 

The  five  states,  moreover,  had  a  common  language,  a 
common  literature,  and  love  of  art,  and  through  these  there 
began  to  dawn  among  them  a  feeling  of  common  nationality. 
Thus  in  Italy  it  was  through  a  love  of  learning  and  of  art 
that  the  sense  of  nationality  awoke,  and  not  as  in  other 
nations  through  war  and  a  necessity  for  combining  against 
a  common  foe. 

Politically,  however,  in  the  fifteenth  centuty  there  were 
as  yet  no  Italians.  There  were  merely  Venetians,  Floren- 
tines, Genoese,  Neapolitans,  and  so  on.  Still  for  a  time  there 
was  a  sort  of  peaceful  federation  among  the  five  greatest 
states,  and  between  the  years  1447  and  1492  Italy  was  more 
free,  and  more  at  rest  from  foreign  domination,  than  it  had 
been  for  many  generations.  Had  this  time  of  peace  been 
allowed  to  last,  had  the  country  been  left  free  from  per- 
nicious alien  interference,  unity  might  have  been  attained 
much  earlier. 

As  it  was  Italy  was  still  centuries  away  from  unity.  It 
was  still  for  centuries  to  be  torn  to  pieces,  and  subjected  to 
the  tyranny  of  foreign  princes. 

In  1266  Charles  of  Anjou,  on  the  invitation  of  the  popes 
Urban  IV  and  Clement  VI,  had  taken  possession  of  the 
kingdom  of  Naples,  which  included  Sicily.  The  French 
domination  was  very  irksome  to  the  Sicilians,  and  in  1282 
the  rebellion  known  as  the  Sicilian  Vespers  broke  out. 
The  French  were  massacred  wholesale,  and  driven  from 
the  island.  Then  the  Sicilians  called  Peter  of  Aragon,  who 


A  PAGEANT  EMPEROR  189 

had  married  the  daughter  of  Tancred  (see  Chapter  XIV)  to 
the  throne. 

After  this  the  house  of  Anjou  ruled  in  Naples,  the  house  of 
Aragon  in  Sicily.  But  in  1435  the  Angevin  dynasty  died 
out  with  Joanna  II,  and  the  kingdom  passed,  not  without 
bloodshed,  to  the  king  of  Sicily,  Alfonso  of  Aragon,  surnamed 
the  Magnanimous.  Thus  Spanish  domination  on  the  main- 
land was  begun. 

Charles  Vm.    The  French  in  Italy 

When  Louis  XI,  king  of  France,  died  in  1483  he  was 
succeeded  by  his  son  Charles  VIII,  a  boy  of  thirteen.  Charles 
was  a  throw-back  into  mediae valism.  He  was  full  of  ro- 
mantic ideas,  sighing  for  picturesque  wars  and  victories,  and 
all  the  splendours  of  an  outwrorn  feudalism.  As  an  Angevin 
he  claimed  the  throne  of  Naples,  and  when  invited  to  invade 
Italy  by  a  wrould-be  duke  of  Milan,  Ludovico  the  Moor,  he 
joyfully  accepted. 

Like  a  knight  of  old,  he  laid  his  lance  in  rest,  and  with 
banners  waving  in  the  breeze  and  trumpets  sounding,  he 
rode  into  Italy  surrounded  by  all  the  pomp  of  a  feudal 
army.  Yet  this  apparently  feudal  pomp  was  purely 
theatrical.  Charles,  however  much  he  wished  it,  could  not 
turn  back  the  hands  of  time,  and  in  reality  his  army  was 
mostly  made  up  of  mercenaries. 

His  progress  was  a  pageant  rather  than  a  campaign,  and 
without  drawing  a  sword  he  passed  through  Italy  to  Naples. 
Alfonso  fled  at  his  coming,  and  almost  without  opposition 
Charles  was  crowned,  assuming,  besides  that  of  King  of 
Naples,  the  empty  titles  of  Emperor  of  the  East  and  King  of 
Jerusalem. 

But  while  in  Naples  Charles  played  at  Empire,  Ferdinand, 
King  of  Spain,  Maximilian  I,  Emperor  of  Germany,  together 
with  some  of  the  Italian  princes  (among  them  that  same 
Duke  of  Milan  who  had  invited  him  to  invade  Italy),  joined 


A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

in  a  league  against  him.  Hurriedly  then  the  pageant 
emperor  beat  a  retreat.  But  at  Fornova  he  found  the 
armies  of  the  allies  barring  the  way.  With  the  courage  of 
1495  desperation  he  faced  his  foes.  The  result  was  a  bare  victory 
for  the  French,  but  it  secured  their  return  to  France. 

Having  reached  his  own  land  again  in  safety  all  recollec- 
tion of  his  short-lived  triumph  in  Italy  seemed  to  pass  from 
the  mind  of  Charles,  and  he  never  renewed  his  claim  to  the 
throne  of  Naples. 

At  first  sight  this  campaign  seems  of  small  importance. 
Charles  had  done  little  but  ride  through  Italy  and  ride  back 
again.  But  it  had  great  results.  It  meant  the  discovery  of 
Italy  by  the  rest  of  Europe,  and  a  French  writer  declares 
that  this  discovery  of  Italy  had  more  effect  on  the  sixteenth 
century  than  the  discovery  of  America.  With  it  began  a 
long  and  disastrous  interference  of  France  in  the  affairs  of 
Italy,  an  interference  prejudicial  alike  to  both  countries. 
The  folly  of  France,  in  thus  wasting  her  energies  in  an  unjust 
war  of  aggression,  prevented  her  from  taking  a  higher  place 
among  the  nations  of  Europe,  and  shattered  the  beginning 
of  Italian  unity. 

Rodrigo  Borgia  and  Savonarola 

Meanwhile,  although  the  French  were  driven  out  of  Italy, 

there  was  no  peace  for  the  unhappy  land.     The  infamous 

1492-  Rodrigo  Borgia  was  pope.     He  had  taken  the  title  of  Alex- 

1503    ander  VI,  and  never  had  Italy  more  cause  to  be  ashamed 

of  her  pontiff   and  her  priesthood.     For  Alexander  was 

one  of  the  worst  popes  who  ever  sat  upon  the  papal  throne. 

Courteous,  magnificent,  and  a  great  lover  of  art,  he  was  yet 

wicked  and  cruel,  and  so  greedy  of  wealth  and  power,  both 

for  himself  and  his  family,  that  he  cared  not  if  he  plunged 

the  whole  of  Italy  into  war  to  gain  his  ends. 

He  cared  nothing  for  his  sacred  office,  and  never  did  the 
Church  sink  so  low  as  under  his  rule.  But  already  the  day  of 


SAVONAROLA  AND  ITALIAN  FREEDOM      191 

reform  was  dawning.     In  Florence  a  monk  named  Girolamo  1452- 
Savonarola  raised  his  voice  against  the  evil  living  of  the  great  1498 
prince  of  the  Church.     He  was  austere  as  a  Hebrew  prophet, 
and  spoke  with  such  fierce  eloquence  that  the  pleasure- 
loving  Florentines  were  shaken  out  of  their  careless  paganism. 
At  his  bidding  they  made  bonfires  of  their  works  of  art, 
and  all    such  "  vanities  "  ;  they  cast  away  their  splendid 
garments  of  silk,  their  ornaments  of  gold,  and  dressed  with 
the  simplicity  of  monks  and  nuns. 

Savonarola  was  a  reformer  before  the  -Reformation.  But 
he  was  not  a  reformer  as  we  have  come  to  understand  the 
word.  He  preached  not  schism  but  righteousness,  and  to 
the  day  of  his  death  he  believed  with  all  his  heart  in  the  teach- 
ing of  the  Church. 

It  was  the  coming  of  Charles  VIII  that  brought  Savonarola 
to  the  front  in  Italian  politics.  It  seemed  to  him  that 
Charles  was  the  instrument  of  God's  vengeance  upon  Italy 
for  her  sins.  To  resist  him  was  to  resist  God,  and  out  of  his 
own  enthusiasm  he  endowed  the  frivolous  French  monarch 
with  all  the  attributes  of  a  divine  messenger  and  minster  of 
justice.  Yet,  when  the  tyrant  Piero  de  Medici  had  been 
expelled  from  Florence,  it  was  Savonarola  who  persuaded 
Charles  to  move  southward,  and  leave  the  republic  in  peace 
to  reframe  her  constitution. 

Savonarola  took  a  great  part  in  the  reframing  of  this 
constitution,  and  for  a  time  the  Florentines  followed  him 
whither  he  led  them  with  a  passionate  devotion.  But  if 
Savonarola  saw  in  Charles  Italy's  great  hope  others  regarded 
him  and  his  army  merely  as  barbarians,  to  be  driven  from 
the  land  as  speedily  as  might  be.  Many  of  the  northern 
states,  therefore,  joined  with  the  king  of  Spain  and  the 
emperor  in  the  League  of  Venice  against  France.  Florence,  1495 
however,  under  Savonarola's  guidance,  refused  to  join. 

This  refusal  roused  the  wrath  of  the  pope,  for  he,  more  than 
all  the  other  princes,  wanted  to  be  rid  of  Charles.  And  as 


192  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Savonarola  would  not  yield,  he  swore  his  downfall.  First, 
however,  he  bribed  him  with  the  promise  of  a  cardinal's 
hat.  Savonarola  refused  it  scornfully.  He  would  have  no 
red  hat,  he  said,  save  the  red  crown  of  a  martyr. 

As  this  pestilent  friar  would  not  hear  reason  Alexander  VI 
excommunicated  him.  Gradually  then  troubles  thickened 
about  him.  He  lost  influence,  his  beloved  Florentines  fell 
away  from  him,  his  enemies  increased  in  number  and  power. 
At  length  he  was  seized  and  condemned  to  death  for  schism 
and  heresy.  On  May  23,  1498,  he  was  hanged,  and  his  body 
was  afterwards  burned. 

Savonarola  was  a  great,  pure-minded  man,  hating  sin 
and  loving  with  a  great  tenderness  the  sinful  and  the  weak. 
Whether  he  was  a  perfect  patriot  can  scarcely  be  decided 
without  a  perfect  knowledge  of  the  troublous  times  in  which 
he  lived.  It  was  not  possible  for  him  to  be  a  great  reformer 
and  a  great  politician  at  one  and  the  same  time.  So,  pas- 
sionately earnest,  fiercely  righteous  and  noble-minded  al- 
though he  was,  he  failed.  His  chief  failure,  it  may  be,  lay 
in  that  he  trusted  to  outside  aid,  instead  of  bidding  his  people 
be  strong  in  themselves.  Yet  for  good  or  evil  his  spirit 
lived  after  him,  and  no  one  can  think  of  the  struggles  of 
Italy  at  this  time  without  taking  Savonarola  into  account. 


CHAPTER  XXXVII 

THE   STRUGGLE   BETWEEN   FRANCE 

AND   SPAIN   FOR  SUPREMACY 

IN   ITALY 

THE  same  year  in  which  Savonarola  was  put  to  death 
Louis  XII  succeeded  Charles  VIII  upon  the  throne  of  France. 
Under  him  the  history  of  France  is  little  more  than  the  his- 


THE  FRENCH  IN  ITALY  193 

tory  of  Italian  campaigns.  For  Louis  XII  laid  claim  not 
only  to  Naples  but  to  the  Duchy  of  Milan.  Warned,  how- 
ever, by  the  fate  of  Charles  VIII,  before  entering  upon  his 
campaign  he  arranged  for  the  concurrence  of  the  other  chief 
rulers  in  Europe. 

Louis  was  supported  by  the  pope,  who  was  not  unwilling 
to  increase  the  papal  states  at  the  expense  of  the  rest  of 
Italy,  and  with  little  trouble  he  conquered  Milan,  and  made  1499 
it  a  province  of  France.     Then  he  turned  his  thoughts  to 
Naples.     Here  he  feared  the  opposition  of  Spain,  so  he  made 
an  alliance  with  Ferdinand,  King  of  Spain,  who  promised  him  1500 
aid  in  return  for  a  share  of  the  spoils. 

The  conquest  of  Naples  was  an  easy  matter,  but  when  it  1501 
was  accomplished  the  royal  robbers  quarrelled  over  the 
division  of  the  spoil.  Louis  found  that  he  had  been  merely 
Ferdinand's  cat's-pawr  and  was  obliged  to  resign  to  him  the 
whole  of  Naples,  and  content  himself  with  Milan,  which 
he  had  conquered  without  his  aid.  1503 

While  Louis  and  Ferdinand  were  quarrelling,  the  pope, 
Alexander  VI,  used  them  in  turn  for  his  own  ends.  He  cared 
not  at  all  for  Italy  but  desired  to  increase  the  papal  states 
in  the  hope  of  bequeathing  them  to  his  cruel  and  unscrupulous 
son,  Caesar  Borgia.  So  while  the  north  and  the  south  of 
the  peninsula  were  given  over  to  foreigners,  he  tried  to  make 
a  solid  kingdom  in  the  centre. 

Alexander  seemed  to  be  succeeding  admirably  when  he 
suddenly  died.     Then  all  the  states  which  he  had  gathered  1503 
with  such  guile  and  wile  reverted  to  the  Church,  and  not  to 
Borgia,  who  soon  fell  from  power  and  shortly  left  Italy. 

Julius  II  and  the  Papal  States 

The  next  pope,  Julius  II,  set  himself  also  to  strengthen 
the  papal  states.     He  did  this,  however,  to  increase   the 
power  of  the  Church  rather  than  that  of  his  own  family.* 
*  See  map,  p.  187. 

N 


194  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

He  was  a  statesman  and  a  soldier  more  than  a  pastor,  and  was 
eager  to  drive  the  barbarians  out  of  Italy.  But  he  wanted  to 
be  sure  that  when  they  were  gone  the  papal  states  would  be 
stronger  than  any  other  state  in  Italy. 

To  secure  this  he  desired  to  crush  Venice  first.  So  in  1508 
he  persuaded  the  Emperor  Maximilian,  Louis  XII  of  France, 
and  Ferdinand  of  Spain  to  join  him  in  the  League  of  Cambray 
against  Venice.  In  the  ensuing  war  Louis  was  again  merely 
a  cat's-paw,  and  when  with  his  help  Venice  was  sufficiently 
crushed,  the  pope  made  peace  with  the  republic.  He  then 

1511  formed  a  new  League  called  the  Holy  League.     This  was 
much  the  same  as  the  League  of  Cambray,  only  now  the  place 
of  France  was  taken  by  Venice,  and  King  Henry  VIII  of 
England  was  also  included.     The  armies  of  this  League  were 

1512  soon  tuined  against  Louis,   and  the  French  were  driven 
beyond  the  Alps. 

Julius  would  now  willingly  have  turned  the  Spaniards  out 
of  Italy  also.  But  with  this  he  was  not  so  successful,  and 
in  1513  he  died,  leaving  them  still  strongly  entrenched  in 
the  south.  Louis  also  did  not  lightly  give  up  his  ambitions, 
and  shortly  after  the  death  of  Julius  he  became  reconciled 
to  the  Venetians,  and  with  their  aid  once  more  made  an 
effort  to  conquer  Milan.  But  the  campaign  ended  in 
disaster,  and  the  French  were  once  more  driven  from 

1513  Italy. 

Under  these  repeated  defeats  France  seemed  crushed,  and 
it  appeared  to  her  many  enemies  the  moment  to  attack  her. 
The  Swiss  invaded  the  east,  Spaniards  threatened  the  south, 
while  Henry  VIII  landed  with  twenty  thousand  men  at 
Calais.  He  was  soon  joined  by  the  Emperor  Maximilian, 
1513  and  the  French  were  defeated  at  the  battle  of  Guinegate. 

Louis  was  now  utterly  weary  of  the  wars  which  had  filled 
his  reign.  He  longed  for  peace,  and  made  overtures  to  the 
pope.  Fortunately  for  France  Leo  X  had  none  of  the  war- 
like ambitions  of  Julius  or  Alexander,  and  he  became  re- 


RESULT  OF  FRENCH  WARS  IN  ITALY        195 

conciled.     By  degrees  the  League  was  dissolved,  and  peace 
made  with  its  various  members. 

In  1515  Louis  XII  died.  In  spite  of  the  many  foreign 
wars  during  his  reign,  and  that  of  Charles  VIII,  France 
had  progressed.  For  the  wars  for  the  most  part  had  been 
carried  on  without  her  borders,  and  the  nobles  had  no  longer 
the  right  of  private  war  wherewith  to  disturb  the  public 
peace.  Feudalism  had  disappeared,  and  the  feudal  lords  had 
been  transformed  into  courtiers.  The  king's  authority  was 
greater  than  it  had  ever  been,  and  he  was  more  able  to  enforce 
obedience  to  his  will.  And  in  the  short  periods  when  he 
was  not  absorbed  in  his  wars  of  aggression,  Louis  had  used 
his  power  well.  He  had  protected  the  people,  encouraged 
agriculture  and  commerce,  so  that  the  general  wealth  of  the 
nation  was  increased. 

Francis  I  and  Charles  V 

Francis  I  succeeded  Louis  XII,  and  he,  too,  was  bitten 
with  desire  of  conquest  in  Italy,  and  almost  at  once  began 
to  make  preparations  for  an  invasion.  By  the  victory  of  1515 
Marignano  he  regained  Milan.  It  was,  however,  now  no 
longer  a  question  of  conquering  the  Italians,  but  of  fighting 
the  Spaniards.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  Franco-Spanish  war 
fought  in  Italy,  and  in  1525  at  Pa  via  Francis  was  utterly 
defeated.  He  lost  everything  which  France  claimed  in 
Italy,  and  was  himself  taken  prisoner,  and  Italy  became  the 
prey  of  Spain. 

Before  this  a  great  change  had  taken  place  in  the  balance 
of  power  in  Europe.  For  in  1516  Ferdinand  of  Spain  died. 
He  was  succeeded  by  his  grandson  Charles,  the  son  of  his 
daughter  Joanna.  Through  her  Charles  inherited  all  Spain,* 
and  all  the  Spanish  conquests  in  Italy,  as  well  as  the  vast 
Empire  which  Spain  now  claimed  in  the  New  World. 

In  1519  the  Emperor  Maximilian  died.     Charles  was  also 
*  See  genealogical  table,  p.  215. 


196  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

his  grandson,  his  father  being  Philip,  the  son  of  Maximilian 
and  Mary  of  Burgundy.*  From  his  grandfather  Maximilian 
he  inherited  all  the  Austrian  possessions  of  the  Hapsburgs  ; 
from  his  grandmother  Mary  he  inherited  the  Netherlands, 
comprising  roughly  the  present  kingdoms  of  Holland  and 
Belgium. 

Added  to  this  Charles  was  elected  emperor  with  the  title 
of  Charles  V.  So  apart  from  his  actual  possessions  he  was 
suzerain  of  the  German  states  and  claimed  with  the  title 
of  emperor  a  vague  lordship  over  the  whole  of  Italy.  He 
held  Europe,  it  was  said,  by  the  four  corners  ;  and  in  days 
when  wars  of  aggression  were  the  right  of  the  strong,  the 
accumulation  of  so  much  power  in  the  hands  of  one  man 
threatened  the  freedom  and  peace  of  the  continent. 

To  France  especially  his  power  seemed  a  menace.  For 
France  was  enclosed  by  his  possessions  save  where  the  sea 
laid  her  open  to  attack  by  her  ancient  enemy  England. 
It  was  hardly  wonderful  then  that  France  should  endeavour 
to  lessen  his  power  and  dispute  his  possession  of  Italy.  But 
besides  this  real  menace  there  was  personal  enmity  between 
Francis  I  and  Charles.  For  Francis  I  had  hoped  to  be  chosen 
emperor ;  that  he  was  not  was  a  bitter  disappointment  to  him, 
and  throughout  the  rest  of  his  life  he  kept  a  jealous  wrath 
against  Charles.  He  was  constantly  at  war  with  him,  and 
Italy  was  the  battle-field  upon  which  these  wars  were  fought. 

But  the  defeat  of  the  French  at  Pavia  and  the  captivity 
of  their  king  brought  no  peace  to  Italy.  As  emperor,  Charles 
claimed  a  vague  suzerainty  over  the  whole  of  Italy,  but  it 
was  rather  by  right  of  conquest  and  as  king  of  Spain  that 
he  enforced  his  claim.  In  resisting  it  the  country  was  filled 
with  confusion,  every  petty  prince  struggling  for  his  own 
advantage.  Thirty  thousand  marauding  imperial  troops, 
half  German,  half  Spanish,  seized  and  sacked  Rome.  Turkish 
pirates  harried  the  coasts,  carrying  off  both  men  and  women 
*  See  map,  p.  211, 


THE  RENAISSANCE  197 

to  be  sold  into  slavery,  while  their  French  allies  devasted  the 
land. 

But  in  the  end  Spain  triumphed.  Italy  was  carved  into 
states  and  parcelled  out  as  Spain  desired,  her  princes  obeyed 
Spain's  will.  Then  for  more  than  two  hundred  and  fifty 
years  Italy  could  hardly  be  said  to  have  a  history  of  her  own. 
She  was  tossed  about  from  one  ruler  to  another,  and  her  fair 
plains  were  the  battle-fields  for  quarrels  not  her  own. 


CHAPTER  XXXVIII 
THE  RENAISSANCE 

WE  use  the  word  Renaissance  to  indicate  the  term  of  years 
between  the  Middle  Ages  and  modern  times.  No  exact  dates 
are  possible.  Roughly,  it  began  in  Italy  towards  the  end  of 
the  fourteenth  century,  with  the  revival  of  learning  there, 
and  gradually  spread  to  the  rest  of  PJurope. 

The  word  Renaissance  is  also  used  to  mean,  not  merely 
the  term  of  years  between  mediaeval  and  modern  times, 
but  the  new  manner  in  which  men  began  at  this  period  to 
look  at  life,  in  the  way  of  moral  conduct  and  of  learning. 
It  was  in  one  aspect  a  revolt  of  man  against  the  accepted 
order  of  things,  an  awakening  in  man  of  the  desire  to  think 
his  own  thoughts  and  to  live  his  own  life.  It  was  a  many- 
sided  and  complicated  movement,  touching  and  transforming 
all  life.  It  was  an  advance  ;  but  in  order  to  make  this  ad- 
vance men  retired  backward  to  the  learning  of  the  ancients. 

During  the  years  when  nations  had  been  forming,  when  the 
business  of  life  was  war,  learning  had  been  neglected. 
Greek  was  a  forgotten  language  in  Western  Europe.  Plato 
was  unknown,  Homer  and  Aristotle  known  only  in  Latin 
translations.  The  books  of  these  and  other  great  writers 


198  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

might  indeed  be  found  in  libraries.  But  they  lay  there  un- 
opened, for  no  one  could  read  them,  and  there  were  neither 
dictionaries  nor  grammars  from  which  the  language  might 
be  learned.  Only  in  Constantinople,  the  eastern  outpost 
of  Christian  Europe,  did  the  old  learning  survive. 

Italy  and  the  Humanists 

As  the  Turks  encroached  upon  the  Grecian  Empire  many 

Greeks    sought    new    homes    in    Italy.     There    they   were 

warmly  welcomed  by  the  young  writers   of  the  day,  such  a 

Petrarch    Petrarch   and   Boccaccio.     Petrarch,    indeed,    could   never 

I3?t~       learn  Greek  at  all,  Boccaccio  never  learned  it  thoroughly,  yet 

Boccaccio  they  were  the  forerunners  of  the  Renaissance.     They  set 

1313-       Italy  on  the  right  road,  and  awoke  a  desire  in  the  heart  of  the 

Italians  for  the  beauties  of  the  old  Greek  learning  and  culture. 

This  return  to  Greek  and  Greek  art  was  a  revolt  against 

priestly   authority   and   a   return   to   nature.     The   whole 

treasure,  therefore,  of  Greek  and  Latin  literature  which  was 

now  discovered,  came  to  be  called  the  Humanities — litterce 

humaniores.      The    men    who    advanced    the    movement 

came  to  be  called  the  Humanists,  and  Petrarch,  it  has  been 

said,  was  the  first  of  the  Humanists. 

Italy  had  shown  itself  ready  to  imbibe  Greek  learning  and 
Greek  art.  So  it  was  naturally  to  Italy  that  most  of  the 
learned  fled  for  refuge,  when  in  1453  Constantinople  was 
taken  by  the  Turks.  These  refugees  brought  with  them 
their  books  and  pictures  as  well  as  their  love  of  art  and 
learning.  They  found,  as  it  were,  the  soil  ready  for  them, 
and  there  the  new-old  learning  took  fresh  root  and  blossomed. 
Soon  the  fame  of  this  learning  spread  abroad.  It  was  not 
unhelped  by  war.  For  invading  armies  came.  Italy  was 
crushed  between  the  upper  and  nether  millstones  of  warring 
princes.  Yet  because  of  her  art  and  learning  she  was  not 
wholly  crushed.  Through  them  she  conquered  the  con- 
querers,  and  scholars  came  from  every  part  of  Europe  to  sit 


THE  DISCOVERY  OF  GUNPOWDER  199 

at  the  feet  of  her  learned  doctors.  Returning  home  they 
carried  to  the  universities  of  France,  Germany,  and  England 
perfect  literary  models,  and  opened  treasures  of  long- 
forgotten  knowledge  to  them. 

From  Italy,  too,  there  spread  a  new  love  of  art.  Francis  I 
carried  back  to  France  with  him  pictures  by  great  artists 
such  as  Michael  Angelo,  Raphael,  and  Leonardo  da  Vinci. 
He  induced  Leonardo  and  other  great  artists  to  come  to 
France,  there  to  build  for  him  splendid  castles  and  churches. 
Taught  by  his  example  great  architects  soon  arose  in  Spain 
and  the  Netherlands.  To  all  the  nations  of  Europe  indeed 
there  came  a  new  conception  of  building.  As  art  and 
learning  began  to  fill  a  part  of  life  which  had  hitherto  been 
given  only  to  war,  the  gloomy  feudal  castles  began  to  disappear 
and  noble  pleasure  houses  took  their  place. 

In  this  connexion  the  discovery  of  gunpowder  changed 
the  world  enormously.  There  has  been  much  discussion 
as  to  who  first  discovered  it  in  Europe.  But  whether  it  was 
a  German  monk,  Berthold  Schwartz,  or  Roger  Bacon,  Bacon 
in  any  case  it  began  to  be  used  in  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  ^94  ?~ 
century.  Its  use  changed  the  art  of  war,  and  struck  a  fatal 
blow  at  feudalism  and  chivalry.  Henceforth  the  knight  on 
horseback  was  of  little  use  in  the  field.  His  prowess  with 
lance  and  sword  availed  him  little,  when  death  could  be 
dealt  from  a  distance,  leaving  him  never  a  chance  of  a  hand- 
to-hand  fight  with  his  equals.  The  cloth-yard  arrows  of  the 
English  archer  had  wounded  him  sorely,  the  leaden  bullet 
of  the  low-born  arquebusier  was  his  death-blow. 

As  the  knowledge  of  the  power  of  gunpowder  increased, 
the  stone -battlement  ed  castles  of  the  nobles  were  rendered 
useless  as  places  of  refuge.  For  walls  strong  enough  to 
resist  the  heaviest  of  battering-rams  crumbled  before  cannon- 
balls.  And  the  consciousness  that  these  formidable  piles 
were  useless  helped  the  spread  of  gracious  architecture. 

Gunpowder  was  a  great  reformer  and  leveller,  but  printing 


200  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

was  a  greater,  and  it  did  more  than  anything  else  to  en- 
courage the  spread  of  learning.  The  art  had  been  known 
to  the  Chinese  long  before  it  was  invented  in  Europe,  and, 
as  with  gunpowder,  there  is  doubt  as  to  the  first  European 
discoverer.  It  may  have  been  Janszoon  Coster  of  Haarlem 
Gutenberg  who  first  discovered  it,  or  it  may  have  been  Johan  Gutenberg 
of  Mainz.  But  whoever  discovered  it,  it  came  into  use 
about  the  middle  of  the  fifteenth  century. 

The  art  very  quickly  spread  through  Italy,  France,  and 
the  Netherlands,  and  thence  was  brought  by  Caxton  to 
England.  By  the  end  of  the  century  printing-presses  were 
busy  in  every  country  in  Europe. 

Nothing  changed  the  world  so  much  as  this  invention. 
Without  it  the  new  learning  might  have  remained  the  privi- 
lege of  the  few.  Without  it  man's  dawning  sense  of  individ- 
uality might  never  have  come  to  the  full  light  of  day.  As 
it  was,  printing  made  a  gift  of  learning  to  the  many.  At 
the  very  outset,  too,  its  influence  was  increased  by  the  dis- 
covery of  new,  cheap  ways  of  making  paper.  So  with  a 
quickness  never  surpassed,  books,  from  being  the  luxury 
of  the  few,  became  the  everyday  necessity  of  all. 

The  New  World 

In  the  fifteenth  century,  in  these  and  many  other  ways, 
the  old  world  changed  rapidly.  Then,  as  if  that  were  not 
enough,  men  discovered  a  new  world.  Christopher  Columbus 
showed  the  way  across  the  Atlantic.*  Vasco  da  Gama 
doubled  the  Cape  of  Good  Hope.  Magellan's  expedition 
sailed  round  the  world.  In  the  wake  of  Columbus  many 
other  great  sailors  followed,  until  it  was  at  length  established 
beyond  a  doubt  that  his  first  voyage  had  led  him  not  to 
India,  as  he  believed,  but  to  the  shores  of  a  mighty,  and 
till  then  undreamed  of,  continent. 

All  these   voyages   made   plain   several   matters.     They 

*  See  map,  p.  173. 


DISCOVERIES  AND  HERESY  201 

made  plain  the  fact  that  the  world  was  round,  that  it  was 
inhabited  on  the  other  side,  that  it  was  much  larger  than  had 
been  supposed.  Now  the  first  two  facts  revealed  were 
"  heresy."  The  Church  had  taught  that  the  world  was  flat 
or  concave.  To  believe  in  the  Antipodes  and  to  believe 
that  the  Antipodes  were  inhabited  was  pronounced  sinful. 
For  had  not  the  Apostles  been  commanded  to  go  forth  to 
preach  the  Gospel  to  the  whole  world  ?  They  never  went 
to  the  Antipodes.  Therefore,  there  was  no  such  place. 

But  the  daring  sailors  who  sailed  forth  now  almost  daily, 
had  proved  beyond  all  possible  contradiction  that  the  world 
wras  round,  and  that  the  Antipodes  were  inhabited.  This  was 
a  sfiock  not  only  to  men's  preconceived  ideas  of  the  world's 
geography  but  to  their  faith.  The  Church  was  proved 
wrong  in  one  dogma,  might  it  not,  they  asked  themselves, 
be  wrong  in  others  ?  Thus  the  discovery  of  the  New  World 
encouraged  men  to  think  for  themselves,  and  decide  for 
themselves  in  matters  of  religion. 

The  discovery  of  the  New  World  opened  a  crack  for  doubt. 
It  also,  as  it  were,  changed  the  axis  of  the  old  world.  Hence- 
forth the  Mediterranean  was  no  longer  the  centre  of  trade  and 
commerce.-  In  the  twelfth  and  thirteenth  centuries  almost 
the  entire  trade  and  commerce  of  Europe  had  been  in  the 
hands  of  the  Italians.  They  were  very  often  all  called 
Lombards  (hence  Lombard  Street  in  London).  They  were 
not  only  the  merchants  but  the  bankers,  manufacturers,  and 
carriers  for  Europe.  Upon  this  trade  cities  such  as  Venice 
grew  great  and  splendid. 

With  the  discovery  of  America  this  wras  changed.  Trade 
drifted  away  from  Italy  and  the  Mediterranean  ports  to 
those  countries  opening  upon  the  Atlantic.  Many  Italian 
ports  were  utterly  ruined,  many  others  fell  from  splendour  to 
insignificance,  merely  because  their  geographical  position  as 
regards  the  New  World,  and  the  new  ways  to  the  old  world, 
was  disadvantageous. 


202  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

The  New  World  became  the  heritage  of  the  people  who 
united  a  good  geographical  postion  with  grit,  daring,  and  love 
of  adventure.  Spain,  Portugal,  England,  France,  and  the 
Netherlands  all  shared  the  good  geographical  position,  and 
all  started  fair  in  the  race.  But  in  the  end  Britain  out- 
distanced all  rivals.  Germany,  because  of  geographical  posi- 
tion and  want  of  political  unity,  took  no  part  in  it  whatever, 
and  has  never  since  been  able  to  make  up  for  lost  oppor- 
tunities in  the  beginning.  Italy,  tied  to  the  wheels  of 
German  ambition,  shared  her  misfortune. 


CHAPTER  XXXIX 
THE  NEW  ASTRONOMY 

Nicolas  Copernicus 

WITH  the  discovery  of  the  New  World  the  axis  of  the  old 
world  was  changed.  With  the  spread  of  individual  thought 
men's  ideas  of  the  entire  universe  changed  also.  The  old 
astronomy  had  taught  that  the  earth  was  the  centre  of  the 
universe,  and  that  the  sun  and  all  the  planets  revolved 
round  it  in  a  proper  and  humble  manner. 

1473-  Now  Nicolas  Copernicus,  a  Polish  astronomer,  published 
1543  a  book  in  which  he  explained  that  the  sun,  and  not  the  earth, 
was  the  centre  of  the  universe,  and  that  the  earth  revolved 
round  the  sun  like  any  other  planet.  This  was  another  shock 
to  man's  faith.  Such  an  idea  was  considered  by  the  Church 
as  heretical  and  contrary  to  Scripture.  Had  not  Joshua 
commanded  the  sun  to  stand  still  ?  And  had  not  the  sun 
obeyed  him  ? 

To  the  ignorant  theologians  of  the  day  it  seemed  that 
Copernicus  was  attacking  the  very  foundations  of  religion. 
To  them  he  was  not  an  eager  seeker  after  truth  but  a  wicked 


'  YET  STILL  IT  MOVES  "  203 

man  who  must  be  silenced  and  punished  for  his  wickedness. 
Copernicus  escaped  any  persecution,  as  he  died  almost  as 
soon  as  his  book  was  published.  His  theory,  however,  did 
not  die  with  him.  Others  carried  on  his  work,  just  as  others 
had  carried  on  that  of  Columbus.  They  were  the  men,  it 
had  been  said,  who  did  more  than  any  others  to  alter  the 
mental  attitude  of  humanity.  Yet  it  was  nearly  a  hundred 
years  after  the  death  of  Copernicus  that  Galileo  Galilei,  an  1564- 
Italian  astronomer,  began  openly  to  spread  his  teaching. 

Galileo 

Then  once  again  the  blind  defenders  of  orthodoxy  were  in 
arms,  and  Galileo  was  threatened  with  the  Inquisition,  and 
forbidden  to  teach  a  theory  which  was  "  expressly  contrary 
to  Holy  Scripture."  He  promised  obedience,  and  was  left  in 
peace.  But  sixteen  years  later  he  forgot  his  promise,  and  wrote 
a  book  in  which  he  supported  the  teaching  of  Copernicus. 

At  once  the  thunders  of  the  Church  were  launched  against 
him.  He  was  by  this  time  an  old  man  of  seventy.  But  that 
did  not  save  him  from  torture  and  imprisonment,  and  under 
the  threat  of  death  by  fire  his  courage  gave  way,  and  he 
retracted.  He  acknowledged  his  errors,  and  declared  that 
the  earth  was  stationary.  But,  it  is  said,  that  as  he  rose 
from  his  knees  after  making  his  confession,  he  was  heard 
to  murmur,  "  Yet  still  it  moves." 

This  recantation  saved  Galileo  from  death.  He  was, 
however,  condemned  to  imprisonment  during  the  pleasure 
of  the  Inquisition.  But  after  a  short  time  he  was  practically 
released,  and  allowed  to  live  in  his  own  house  not  far  from 
Florence.  Here,  eight  years  later,  he  died,  still  nominally 
the  prisoner  of  the  Church. 

But  in  spite  of  suppression  and  persecution  the  world 
moved  on.  The  inquiring  spirit  of  man  once  awakened 
could  not  be  put  to  sleep  again.  An  intense  desire  to  know 
all  that  there  was  to  know  increased  daily. 


204  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Giordano  Bruno 

1548-      One  of  the  great  leaders  in  this  fight  for  liberty  of  thought 

1600    anci    speech    was    Giordano    Bruno,    a    Neapolitan    monk. 

Persecuted  and  hunted  from  place  to  place,  he  was  at  last 

seized  by  the  Inquisition,  and  after  eight  years'  imprisonment 

was  burned  as  a  heretic. 

r<  The  earth/'  he  said,  "  only  holds  her  high  rank  among 
the  stars  by  usurpation.  It  is  time  to  dethrone  her.  Let 
this  not  dispirit  man  as  if  he  thought  himself  forsaken  by 
God.  For  if  God  is  everywhere,  if  there  is  in  truth  an  un- 
numbered host  of  stars  and  suns,  what  matters  the  vain 
distinction  between  the  heaven  and  the  earth  ?  Dwellers 
in  a  star,  are  we  not  included  in  the  celestial  plains  set  at 
the  very  gates  of  Heaven  ?  " 

Sayings  such  as  these  cost  Bruno  his  life.  Not  un- 
worthily has  he  been  named  "  a  hero  of  thought."  He  dared 
to  break  the  bonds  of  "  authority,"  to  think  for  himself, 
and  follow  truth  even  to  death. 

As  can  be  seen  the  new  birth  was  accomplished  only 
through  much  pain.  The  new  day  dawned  on  Europe 
slowly  and  stormily.  But  in  spite  of  the  hindering  hand 
of  superstition,  in  spite  of  dark  dungeons  and  the  rack,  in 
spite  of  the  stake  and  its  cruel  fires,  the  movement  increased 
until  at  length  the  old  order  vanished,  and  the  new  took 
its  place  all  over  Western  Europe.  In  every  country,  on  all 
subjects,  men  fought  for  and  won  the  right  of  private  judg- 
ment, the  right  of  individual  freedom. 


EARLY  REFORMERS          205 


CHAPTER  XL 

THE  BEGINNING  OF  THE 
REFORMATION 

EVERYTHING  in  the  Renaissance  did  not  make  for  good.  It 
led  towards  freedom,  but  it  also  led  towards  godlessness  and 
licence.  But  born  of  the  same  desire  for  truth,  led  by  the 
same  spirit  of  liberty,  helped  by  the  printing-press,  even  as 
the  new  learning  was  helped,  another  movement  grew  and 
spread.  This  was  the  Reformation. 

The  Reformation  was  not  a  revolt  against  the  Renaissance 
but  its  natural  accompaniment.  They  acted  and  re-acted 
upon  each  other.  In  everything  men  had  begun  to  think 
for  themselves.  By  new  discoveries  on  the  earth  and  in  the 
heavens  old  beliefs  had  been  shaken.  It  was  not  wonderful 
then  that  men  should  claim  the  right  of  freedom  in  religious 
thought  as  in  all  others. 

Early  Reformers 

As  the  Renaissance  had  its  forerunners,  so  also  had  the 
Reformation.     At  the  beginning  of  the  thirteenth  century 
the  Albigenses  in  the  south  of  France  had  been  crushed 
out  of  existence  because  they  dared  to  worship  God  in  their 
own  way.     In  the  middle  of  the  fourteenth  century  in  Eng- 
land John  Wycliife  had  preached  against  the  doctrines  of  1324?- 
the  Church,  and  had  made  the  first  translation  of  the  Bible  138' 
into  P^nglish.     He  was  persecuted  but  not  silenced,  and 
after  his  death  his  followers,   the  Lollards,   continued  to 
teach  and  preach  until  they  were  suppressed  by  force. 

Wycliffe's  teaching,  however,  was  not  killed,  and  it 
spread  over  Europe  even  as  far  as  Bohemia.  Here  in  the 
beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century  John  Huss  began  to  14145 


206  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

preach  his  doctrines.  He  was  burned  at  the  stake,  a  crusade 
was  declared  against  his  followers,  and  for  fifteen  years  they 
were  hunted  and  persecuted. 

But  in  the  end  these  and  other  movements  like  them 'had 
all  been  crushed.  None  of  them  had  the  aid  of  the  printing- 
press,  therefore  they  remained  more  or  less  local,  and  left 
little  impression  on  the  world  as  a  whole. 

In  spite  of  these  occasional  risings  against  its  authority, 
the  pretension  of  the  Church  increased  as  time  went  on, 
until  the  pope  claimed  absolute  authority  over  every 
country  and  every  king,  in  secular  as  well  as  in  spiritual 
matters.  Kings,  said  the  pope,  in  effect,  could  reign  only 
by  his  will  and  favour.  And  if  any  displeased  him  he 
claimed  the  right  of  deposing  him,  and  of  giving  his  lands  to 
another. 

But  as  in  each  country  the  sense  of  nationality  and  the 
royal  power  grew  greater,  both  kings  and  people  began  to 
chafe  at  this  foreign  interference.  As  the  papacy  became 
less  spiritual  and  more  and  more  secular,  as  the  pope  him- 
self became  less  and  less  a  pastor  and  more  and  more  a  ruling 
prince  and  warrior,  this  dissatisfaction  increased.  Kings 
grudged  more  and  more  the  constant  stream  of  gold  which, 
flowing  from  their  countries  in  the  shape  of  tithes  and  other 
ecclesiastical  fees,  went,  not  to  spread  the  Gospel  of  Christ, 
but  to  swell  the  exchequer  of  the  pope  as  a  temporal  prince 
and  possible  political  enemy. 

On  the  political  side,  then,  the  world  was  ready  to  break 
with  the  pope.  On  the  religious  side  it  was  also  ready. 
For  there  came  the  new  learning  and  the  printing-press. 
Bibles  were  soon  sown  broadcast  in  the  tongues  of  every 
nation  in  Europe.  Men  were  no  longer  content  to  be  told 
that  such  and  such  a  doctrine  was  taught  by  the  Church  ; 
they  wanted  to  know  why  and  upon  what  grounds  the 
Church  taught  its  doctrines.  The  Reformation  was  thus 
both  a  political  and  a.  religious  movement.  For  in  the. 


INDULGENCES  207 

Middle  Ages  Church  and  state  had  become  so  bound  to- 
gether that  it  could  not  be  otherwise. 

More  than  any  other  land  Germany  had  felt  the  power  of 
the  pope.  Because  of  the  fatal  connexion  between  the 
Holy  Roman  Empire  and  the  Holy  See  it  had  been  kept 
from  nationality,  and  had  remained  a  collection  of  states 
great  and  small,  held  together  by  the  slightest  of  bonds. 
Now,  more  than  any  other  land,  it  was  ready  for  revolt. 
The  gunpowder  was  ready,  the  train  was  laid  ;  it  needed 
but  a  spark  to  fire  it.  The  spark  which  caused  the  explosion 
was  the  sale  of  Indulgences. 

The  Sale  of  Indulgences 

An  Indulgence  meant  that  by  paying  a  sum  of  money  a 
man  could  buy  forgiveness  of  any  sin  he  had  committed. 
The  selling  of  them  was  no  new  thing.  It  was  closely  con- 
nected with  the  practice  of  doing  penance,  many  people 
preferring  to  pay  money  than  do  penance  in  other  ways. 
But  in  early  days  no  Indulgence  had  been  given  except 
upon  the  promise  of  repentance.  By  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century  the  sale  of  them  had  become  a  scandal.  The  most 
vile  and  wicked,  who  had  neither  the  desire  nor  the  intention 
of  repentance,  could  buy  them  freely. 

When  an  Indulgence  seller  set  forth  upon  his  rounds  he 
did  so  in  splendour,  with  a  gay  train  of  followers.  Coming 
to  a  city  he  entered  it  with  pomp.  The  Bull  declaring 
the  Indulgence  was  carried  on  a  cushion  of  cloth  of 
gold  or  of  crimson  velvet.  Priests  swinging  censers  and 
carrying  lighted  candles  and  banners  followed  after,  and 
thus  to  the  sound  of  chants  and  songs,  and  the  ringing 
of  joy  bells,  the  procession  passed  along  the  streets  to  the 
church. 

Here,  before  the  altar,  the  vendor  spread  forth  his  wares, 
and  declaring  that  the  gates  of  heaven  were  open,  invited 
the  people  to  come  and  buy, 


208  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

1513-      When  Leo  X  became  pope  he  found  his  exchequer  almost 

1522    empty.   He  needed  money  sorely  for  his  many  projects,  among 

them  the  building  of  St.  Peter's  at  Rome.    To  get  the  money 

he  fell  back  upon  the  fruitful  expedient  of  selling  Indulgences. 

Martin  Luther 

The  man  who  had  charge  of  their  sale  in  Germany  was  a 
Dominican  monk  named  John  Tetzel.  He  was  vulgar  and 
blasphemous.  He  cried  his  wares  in  the  church  like  a  cheap- 
jack  in  the  market-place,  making  unseemly  jokes  by  the  way. 
This  manner  of  selling  Indulgences  shocked  many  people 
who  before  had  found  no  harm  in  the  custom.  Among  these 
1483-  was  the  monk  Martin  Luther. 

Luther  was  the  son  of  a  poor  miner,  and  his  childhood 
had  been  one  of  bitter  poverty.  But  poor  although  he  was, 
Hans  Luther  had  managed  to  send  his  son  to  school  and 
afterwards  to  the  university  of  Erfurt,  at  that  time  the  most 
famous  in  Germany. 

His  son  repaid  him  by  working  hard,  and  it  seemed  as  if 
he  had  a  great  career  before  him,  when  suddenly  he  threw  all 
1505  his  brilliant  prospects  to  the  winds  and  became  a  monk. 
Martin  took  this  step,  he  said,  to  save  his  soul.  For  he  was 
one  of  those  who  had  begun  to  think  for  themselves  on  matters 
of  religion,  and  his  thoughts  had  thrown  him  into  an  anguish 
of  doubt.  In  time,  however,  he  found  some  sort  of  peace, 
and  when  Tetzel  came  to  Germany  he  was  teacher  of  theology 
in  the  university  of  Wittenberg. 

For  various  reasons  many  of  the  rulers  in  Germany  dis- 
liked the  selling  of  Indulgences,  and  the  Elector  of  Saxony 
had  forbidden  Tetzel  to  enter  his  dominions.  But  Tetzel 
would  not  willingly  forgo  the  harvest  of  gold  which  might 
be  gleaned  from  Saxony.  So,  without  actually  entering  its 
borders  he  came  as  near  to  them  as  he  could,  and  set  up  his 
booth  in  Magdeburg.  And  as  he  had  foreseen,  many  people 
crossed  the  frontiers  to  buy  Indulgences. 


LUTHER'S  HAMMER  209 

At  this  Luther's  heart  was  filled  with  sorrow  and  indigna- 
tion. He  could  not  but  feel  that  these  poor  people  were 
being  deceived  and  exploited.  At  length  he  wrote  out,  in 
Latin,  ninety-five  theses,  or  articles,  against  the  sale  of 
Indulgences,  and  on  November  i,  1517,  he  nailed  them  to 
the  door  of  the  castle  church  at  Wittenberg.  The  chief  idea 
in  these  theses  was  "  that  by  true  sorrow  and  repentance 
only,  and  not  by  payment  of  money,  forgiveness  of  sins 
can  be  won." 


CHAPTER  XLI 

REFORMATION  PERIOD 
GERMANY 

WHEN  Luther  nailed  his  theses  to  the  door  of  Wittenberg 
Church  he  had  no  idea  of  what  a  great  thing  he  did.  He  had 
no  idea  that  he  had  begun  a  vast  world-shaking  movement. 
He  had  merely,  in  the  fashion  of  the  day,  invited  any  who 
liked  to  debate  the  matter  in  public  with  him.  But  soon  all 
Germany  rang  with  his  challenge.  For  the  theses  said 
openly  and  clearly  what  many  had  thought  in  secret  yet 
dared  not  give  voice  to.  They  were  quickly  translated  into 
German  and  sown  broadcast  throughout  the  land.  From 
Germany  they  spread  all  over  Europe,  until  all  Europe  was 
filled  with  disputations. 

At  first  the  pope  thought  little  of  the  matter,  and  looked 
upon  it  as  a  mere  monkish  squabble.  But  soon  he  saw  that 
it  was  more  than  that,  and  he  issued  a  Bull  of  excommunica-  1520 
tion  against  Luther.  By  this  time,  however,  Luther  had 
become  aware  of  what  a  great  mass  of  opinion  he  had  on  his 
side.  And  instead  of  trembling  at  the  pope's  wrath,  he 
publicly  burned  the  Bull. 

o 


210  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

Charles  V 

Eighteen  months  before  this  the  Emperor  Maximilian 
had  died,  and  after  much  intriguing  his  grandson  Charles 
had  been  chosen  emperor.  As  emperor  his  rule  was  so  wide- 
spread that  it  is  hardly  an  exaggeration  to  say  that  the  future 
of  the  Reformation  was  in  his  hands.  And  so  far  as  European 
history  is  concerned  the  chief  point  of  interest  in  his  reign  is 
his  attitude  towards  the  movement. 

The  very  extent  of  Charles  V's  dominions  saved  the  Re- 
formation. For  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign  as  emperor, 
he  was  so  much  occupied  with  the  complicated  politics  of 
his  varied  possessions,  that  he  could  not  give  his  whole  mind 
to  the  suppression  of  heresy  in  Germany. 

Not  till  eighteen  months  after  his  election  as  emperor, 
more  than  three  years  after  Luther  had  nailed  his  theses  to 
the  door  of  the  castle  church  at  Wittenberg,  did  Charles 
pay  his  first  visit  to  his  German  dominions.  There  in 
January  1521  he  held  his  first  Diet  at  Worms.  And  to  this 
Diet  Luther  was  summoned  to  answer  for  his  heresy. 

During  the  three  years  which  had  passed  since  his  first 
bold  deed,  Luther  had  become  strengthened  in  his  con- 
victions. Now  he  refused  to  retract  anything  that  he  had 
1521  said.  So  the  Ban  of  the  Empire  was  pronounced  against 
him.  Henceforth  he  might  be  hunted  or  slain  like  a  beast 
of  prey,  and  his  books  were  ordered  to  be  confiscated  and 
burned. 

Excommunication  and  Ban  alike  fell  harmless.  Luther 
had  now  so  many  powerful  friends  that  none  dared  to  lay 
hands  upon  him,  and  his  books  were  openly  bought  and  sold 
in  far  greater  numbers  than  before. 

Charles  was  a  Catholic  not  from  conviction  but  from 
heredity.  The  religious  aspect  of  the  Protestant  revolt 
interested  him  not  at  all.  The  political  aspect  interested 
him  much.  He  desired  to  make  sure  of  the  pope's  help 


212  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

against  his  arch  enemy  Francis  I  in  his  Italian  wars,  and  by 
condemning  Luther  he  procured  this  help.  But  he  also 
produced  war  in  his  German  domains. 

For,  condemned  by  the  pope  and  the  emperor  although 
he  might  be,  not  only  many  of  the  German  people  but  many 
of  the  German  princes  supported  Luther.  Had  the  em- 
peror's interests  been  undivided  he  would  have  crushed  these 
Protestant  princes  with  an  iron  hand.  But  as  it  was  he 
dared  not.  For  he  had  two  great  enemies,  the  French  and 
the  Turks.  The  Turks  were  constantly  threatening  his  Haps- 
burg  possessions,  the  French  were  constantly  opposing  him  in 
Italy.  To  keep  these  two  enemies  in  check  Charles  had 
need  of  German  help. 

Protestants 

So  in  spite  of  all  efforts  against  it  the  heresy  spread.  At 
1529  length,  however,  the  Diet  met  at  Spires,  and  passed  a  decree 
forbidding  any  -change  of  religion,  and  commanding  mass  to 
be  said  in  all  churches.  Against  this  decree  the  Protestant 
princes  issued  a  protest.  And  from  this  all  those  who  then, 
or  later,  broke  away  from  the  Church  of  Rome,  received  the 
name  of  Protestants. 

During  all  this  time  Charles  had  not  again  visited  Germany, 
for  the  difficulties  of  his  Spanish  dominions  kept  him  in 
Spain.  But  in  1530,  finding  himself  at  peace  for  the  moment, 
he  attended  the  Diet  of  Augsburg  prepared  to  force  his  will 
upon  the  Protestants.  The  Protestant  princes,  however, 
refused  to  be  coerced,  and  Melancthon,  Luther's  gentle  and 
wise  friend,  drew  up  a  Protestant  Creed,  and  laid  it  before 
1530  the  Diet.  From  this  it  is  called  the  Confession  of  Augsburg, 
and  is  still  the  accepted  Creed  of  the  Lutheran  Church. 

The  Protestant  leaders  now,  too,  fearing  that  Charles 
would  try  to  enforce  his  will  by  arms,  banded  themselves 
into  the  Schmalkald  League,  and  prepared  to  resist  force  by 
force.  But  for  the  time  Charles  forbore  to  coerce  them. 


CHARLES  V  AND  THE  PROTESTANTS        213 

For  the  Turks  besieged  Vienna,  and  he  had  need  of  the  sup- 
port of  the  Protestant  as  well  of  the  Catholic  princes  to  guard  1532 
his  possessions.  In  order  to  gain  this  help  he  signed  the 
religious  Peace  of  Nuremberg.  By  this  Protestants  were 
granted  full  freedom  to  worship  God  as  they  would,  until 
a  General  Council  should  be  called  to  discuss  and  settle 
the  matter. 

Then,  having  defeated  the  Turks,  Charles  once  more  left 
Germany,  to  turn  his  sword  against  his  other  great  enemy, 
Francis  I.  Between  1521  and  1544  Charles  fought  at  least 
four  distinct  wars  against  Francis  I  for  the  possession  of 
Italy.  Again  and  again  Francis  was  defeated.  He  signed 
treaties  and  truces,  and  broke  them  ;  he  was  taken  prisoner 
and  released  ;  and  finally,  to  the  horror  of  Europe,  he  allied 
himself  with  the  infidel  Turk  against  the  emperor.  But 
even  this  did  not  save  him  from  defeat,  and  at  length  the 
long  struggle  came  to  an  end  in  1544  with  the  Treaty  of 
Crespy.  This  treaty  left  Francis  little  better  off  as  regards 
Italy  than  he  had  been  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  it  also 
bound  him  to  aid  in  the  suppression  of  heresy. 

The  following  year  Charles  signed  a  long  truce  with  the 
Turks,  and  being  thus  free  of  his  two  chief  enemies,  he  set 
out  for  Germany,  determined  to  crush  the  Schmalkald 
League,  and  force  all  German}/  to  return  to  the  old  religion. 

In  1546  the  Schmalkald  War  broke  out.  At  first  Charles 
was  successful,  and  it  seemed  as  if  at  last  he  would  be  able 
to  enforce  his  will  on  Germany.  He  had  gained  his  early 
successes  by  the  help  of  Maurice,  duke  of  Saxony.  But  in 
the  hour  of  his  triumph  Maurice  turned  against  him;  the 
war  ended  in  disaster  for  Charles,  and  he  was  obliged  to 
give  up  his  design  of  forcing  all  German}/  to  think  alike  on 
matters  of  religion. 

By  the  religious  Peace  of  Augsburg  in  1555  a  religious 
toleration  of  a  very  limited  kind  was  established.  It  gave 
to  the  ruler  of  each  state  power  to  decide  what  should  be  the 


214  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

religion  of  its  people,  and  power  to  do  as  he  liked  with  those 
who  refused  to  conform  to  his  religion.  Thus  the  great 
revolt  which  had  been  awakened  by  the  blows  of  Luther's 
hammer  came  to  an  end.  The  emperor  and  the  pope  had 
lost,  and  had  been  forced  to  give  Tip  their  claim  to  be  the 
keepers  of  the  general  conscience  of  mankind.  But  the  people 
had  not  won.  They  had  merely  changed  masters.  Their 
princes  were  to  be  the  keepers  of  their  conscience,  they  were 
to  be  bishops  as  well  as  rulers.  This  was  no  real  settlement. 
The  strife  was  only  ended  for  a  time  ;  later  it  was  to  break 
out  more  seriously  than  before. 

The  Abdication  of  Charles  V 

While  the  Peace  of  Augsburg  was  being  concluded  Charles 
V  abdicated.  He  tried,  but  tried  in  vain,  to  make  the 
electors  choose  his  son  Philip  as  emperor.  They  refused, 
and  elected  his  brother  Ferdinand  instead.  So  to  Philip 
Charles  could  only  bequeath  the  Netherlands,  the  Italian 
provinces,  and  Spain,  with  all  her  vast  possessions  in  America. 

That  Charles  was  able  to  leave  the  Italian  provinces  and 
the  Netherlands  to  Philip  without  question  is  a  signal  proof 
of  the  ascendency  of  Spain  in  Europe  at  this  time.  For 
Italy  had  always  been  looked  upon  as  a  part  of  the  Empire. 
Throughout  centuries  streams  of  German  blood  had  been 
shed  to  acquire  and  hold  it  But  Charles,  disregarding  the 
fact  that  he  had  made  his  conquests  by  German  aid,  claimed 
Italy  by  right  of  conquest,  and  not  by  right  of  the  ancient 
imperial  claim.  And  as  a  Spanish  possession  he  left  the 
country  to  his  son  Philip. 

The  loss  of  Italy  to  the  Empire  was  merely  imaginary.  It 
was,  indeed,  no  real  loss  but  a  gain.  A  very  real  loss,  and 
one  which  was  to  be  felt  in  modern  times,  was  the  loss  of  the 
Netherlands.  For  centuries  the  northern  part  of  the 
Netherlands,  that  part  which  is  now  Holland,  had  been  in- 
cluded in  the  Empire.  Now,  by  the  will  of  Charles,  it  was 


ULRICH  ZWINGLI  215 

severed  from  it  without  question  or  protest.  And  to  this 
day  the  great  German  river,  the  Rhine,  flows  to  the  sea 
through  a  foreign  country.  Thus  Charles  V  sowed  the  seeds 
of  future  warfare. 

CHARLES  V 

Ferdinand  =    Isabella  Maximilian  =    Mary  of 


of  Aragon, 
1474-1516. 


of  Castile,  Emperor, 

1474-1504.  1493-1519. 


Burgundy. 


Katherine  =  Henry  VIII,      Joanna  =  Archduke  Philip 
King  of  England.  of  Austria. 


I  I 

Charles  V,  Emperor  Ferdinand, 

1519-1556.  Emperor,  1556-1564. 

Philip  II, 
King  of  Spain, 

I556-I598- 


CHAPTER  XLII 

REFORMATION  PERIOD 
SWITZERLAND  AND  FRANCE 

VERY  quickly  the  new  religion  spread  to  other  lands.  Yet, 
save  that  it  was  Luther  who,  with  unconscious  courage,  first 
showed  the  way,  the  Reformation  in  other  countries  had 
little  connexion  with  that  of  Germany. 

In  Switzerland  the  Reformation  was  led  by  Ulrich  Zwingli.  1484- 
At  this  time  the  position  of  Switzerland  was  different  from  1531 
that  of  any  other  country  in  Europe.     It  had  wrung  itself 
free  from  the  Empire  and  from  the  house  of  Austria,  but 


216  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

it  had  not  yet  become  a  consolidated  nation.  Each  of  the 
thirteen  cantons  of  which  it  was  now  composed  had  its  own 
government,  these  governments  varying  considerably  one 
from  the  other.  There  was  thus  not  even  the  shadow  of  a 
central  government,  such  as  Germany  had  through  the 
emperor,  or  Italy  through  the  pope.  They  had  not  even  a 
common  language. 

But  in  fact  Switzerland  was  far  more  united  than  either 
Germany  or  Italy.  Each  canton  was  independent,  yet  each 
was  a  member  of  a  federal  league.  They  used  a  common 
flag,  a  white  cross  on  a  red  ground,  and  a  common  motto, 
"  Each  for  all,  and  all  for  each." 

Since  their  war  of  independence  the  Swiss  had  had  few 
wars  of  their  own.  Yet  in  nearly  all  the  wars  of  Europe 
the  Swiss  took  part,  even  at  times  a  decisive  part.  For 
since  their  victorious  struggle  the  Swiss  had  earned  the  re- 
putation of  being  the  best  foot  soldiers  in  Europe.  And  when 
by  degrees  paid  soldiery  took  the  place  of  feudal  armies, 
warring  kings  and  princes  were  eager  to  hire  Swiss  soldiery 
to  fight  for  them.  The  sense  of  nationality  was  still  feeble  ; 
one  nation  had  as  yet  little  sense  of  another  nation's  rights. 
It  shocked  none  to  find  the  men  who  had  won  their  own 
liberty  selling  their  swords  and  fighting  a  tyrant's  battles. 

The  pope  was  one  of  the  chief  hirers  of  Swiss  soldiery, 
and  besides  fighting  in  his  army  they  formed  his  bodyguard, 
so  that  intercourse  between  Rome  and  Switzerland  was 
constant.  But  this  intercourse  was  purely  commercial, 
and  so  far  as  religion  was  concerned  Switzerland  was  singu- 
larly free  from  papal  interference. 

The  Swiss  Reformation  began  in  the  canton  of  Zurich, 
and  soon  spread  to  Berne.  It  began  as  in  Germany  with  an 
attack  on  the  sale  of  Indulgences.  But  although  the  move- 
ment spread  rapidly,  many  in  the  Forest  Cantons  clung  to 
the  Romish  faith.  Soon  the  controversy  between  the  two 
parties  became  so  bitter  that  it  led  to  civil  war. 


JOHN  CALVIN  217 

In  1531  the  battle  of  Kappel  was  fought,  in  which  the 
Protestants  were  defeated  and  Zwingli  himself  killed. 
After  this  a  treaty  was  drawn  up  between  the  cantons,  which 
left  each  free  to  settle  its  own  religious  matters. 

John  Calvin 

Now  that  Zwingli  was  dead  John  Calvin  became  the  leader  1509- 
of  the  Reformation  in  Switzerland,  and  Geneva  took  the 
place  of  Zurich  as  the  centre  of  the  movement.  Calvin 
was  a  young  Frenchman  who  had  become  a  Protestant, 
and  had  been  forced  to  flee  from  France  to  escape  persecu- 
tion. After  Luther  he  was  the  greatest  of  the  reformers, 
and  his  influence  was  far  more  wide  reaching.  The  French 
Protestants  and  the  English  Puritans  alike  looked  to  him  as 
their  guide.  John  Knox  was  his  follower,  and  taught  his 
doctrine  to  the  Scottish  people,  and  the  Pilgrim  Fathers 
carried  it  across  the  Atlantic  to  the  New  World. 

Calvin  was  himself  a  scholar,  and  he  gathered  many  other 
scholars  to  Geneva,  making  it  the  stronghold  of  Pro- 
testantism and  the  centre  of  its  teaching.  It  was  from 
Geneva  that  the  first  trained  teachers  and  pastors  went 
forth  to  teach  and  preach  the  new  faith.  But  the  doctrine 
they  taught  was  cold  and  narrow.  For  Calvin,  although  a 
learned  man,  was  harsh  and  severe.  He  had  none  of  the 
human  kindliness  of  Luther,  nor  the  open-mindedness  of 
Zwingli. 

Persecution  of  Protestants  in  France 

In  France  the  new  religion  met  with  terrible  opposition. 
Yet  there  it  was  never  a  national  movement,  the  Protestants 
always  representing  a  minority,  although  a  strong  one. 
One  reason  for  this  was  that  the  movement  was  not  so  much 
with  them  a  political  revolt  against  secular  interference  by 
the  Pope  as  it  was  with  other  peoples.  For  ever  since  the 
"  Babylonish  Captivity/'  when  the  popes  had  been  more  or 


218  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

less  subject  to  the  French  king,  France  had  been  more  free 
than  other  nations  from  papal  interference,  and  the  headship 
of  the  French  Church  had  belonged  more  to  the  French  king 
than  to  the  pope.  So  it  came  about  that  not  being  a  national 
movement,  in  time  opposition  and  persecution  were  able 
practically  to  wipe  out  the  Protestants  of  France. 

By  the  Treaty  of  Crespy  Francis  I  had  bound  himself  to 
crush  heresy  within  his  dominions.  Far  less  than  Charles  V 
had  he  himself  any  religious  convictions,  and  was  personally 
inclined  to  tolerance.  But  his  complicated  alliances  drove 
him  into  many  inconsistencies.  So  while  he  had  not  hesi- 
tated to  ally  himself  with  the  Protestant  princes  of  Germany 
against  his  enemy  Charles,  and  even  with  the  infidel  Turk, 
to  ingratiate  himself  with  the  pope  he  entered  upon  a  cruel 
persecution  of  the  Protestants  of  Provence. 
1545  These  unoffending,  devout,  and  loyal  people  were  de- 
nounced as  heretics  and  barbarously  slaughtered.  Neither 
age  nor  sex  was  respected,  and  three  thousand  men,  women, 
and  children  were  put  to  death.  Others  were  sent  to  the 
galleys,  and  their  villages  laid  in  ruins. 

In  1547  Francis  died.  Throughout  his  reign  he  had  been 
stable  in  one  thing — in  his  hatred  of  the  house  of  Austria. 
In  that  he  had  shown  wisdom.  For  the  menace  of  Austria 
was  a  menace  to  all  Europe,  and  not  to  France  alone.  In 
combating  the  desire  for  world  dominion  Francis  had,  in  a 
sense,  fought  for  Europe.  He  left  France,  moreover,  actually 
increased  in  territory,  stronger  and  more  compact  than 
before.  He  left  her  also  more  beautiful  and  advanced  in 
culture.  For  he  was  the  patron  of  both  artists  and  men 
of  letters,  and  many  of  the  splendid  castles  which  are  still 
the  glory  of  the  Loire  valley  date  from  his  reign. 
1547-  Francis  was  succeeded  by  his  son  Henry  II.  He  was  a 
1559  mediocre  and  feeble  prince,  and  allowed  himself  to  be  guided 
by  ambitious  counsellors,  chief  among  them  the  Guises. 
Before  long  he  was  in  league  once  more  with  the  Protestant 


HENRY  VIII  AND  THE  REFORMATION       219 

princes  of  Germany  against  his  father's  old  enemy  Charles. 
But  now  fortune  had  forsaken  Charles,  and  from  the  walls  of 
Metz  he  retired  beaten.  1553 

During  this  reign  the  Reformation  made  great  progress  in 
France.  Men  high  in  office,  and  even  princes  of  the  royal 
blood,  joined  the  movement.  Growing  bolder  in  consequence, 
many  who  formerly  had  only  worshipped  in  secret  openly 
confessed  their  adherence  to  the  new  faith,  and  in  1555 
the  first  Protestant  church  was  established  in  Paris. 

Henry  looked  upon  the  spread  of  the  new  faith  with  fear 
and  anger,  and  once  more  persecutions  began.  But  these 
persecutions  only  made  the  Protestants  cling  more  firmly  to 
their  faith. 


CHAPTER  XLIII 

REFORMATION  PERIOD 
ENGLAND  AND  SCANDINAVIA 

IN  England  the  Reformation  ran  a  different  course  from  that 
in  France  or  Germany.  In  these  countries  Protestantism 
spread  in  spite  of  the  strenuous  opposition  of  the  rulers. 
In  England  it  was  aided  by  the  ruler,  King  Henry  VIII. 

When  Martin  Luther  first  published  his  theses  Henry 
VIII  denounced  him  loudly,  and  as  loudly  upheld  the  head- 
ship of  the  pope.  He  even  wrote  a  book  called  "  The 
Defence  of  the  Seven  Sacraments,"  a  copy  of  which, 
sumptuously  bound,  he  sent  to  the  pope.  In  return,  Leo  X 
bestowed  upon  him  the  title  of  Defender  of  the  Faith.  1521 

A  few  years  after  this  Henry  desired  to  divorce  his  wife 
Katharine  of  Aragon,  in  order  to  marry  Anne  Boleyn.  He 
professed  a  fear  that  he  had  sinned  against  heaven  in  marry- 
ing Katharine  at  all,  as  she  was  the  widowr  of  his  elder 


220  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

1527  brother  Arthur,  and  he  asked  the  pope,  now  Clement  VII, 
to  grant  him  a  divorce. 

Now  Katharine  was  the  daughter  of  Ferdinand  and  Isa- 
bella of  Spain,  and  the  aunt  of  the  Emperor  Charles  V. 
So  Henry's  demand  placed  Clement  in  a  difficult  position. 
If  he  refused  to  grant  Henry's  request  he  would  offend  him. 
If  he  granted  it  he  would  offend  Charles  V.  He  dared  not 
offend  Charles,  so  he  temporized.  But  Henry  grew  weary 
of  awaiting  the  pope's  pleasure,  and  he  induced  Archbishop 
Cranmer  to  pronounce  the  divorce  without  further  appeal  to 

1533  Rome. 

Henry  VIII  Supreme  Head  of  the  English  Church 

Upon  this  the  pope  ordered  Henry  to  take  back  his  wife 
upon  pain  of  excommunication.  Instead  of  obeying,  Henry 
replied  by  cutting  the  Church  of  England  free  from  Rome, 

1534  Acts  of  Parliament  were  speedily  passed  declaring  that  the 
king  of  England,  and  not  the  pope  of  Rome,  was  the  supreme 
head  of  the  English  Church,  and  forbidding  the  payment  of 
any  moneys  to  the  pope.    It  was  also  declared  that  the  bishop 
of  Rome  had  no  more  jurisdiction  in  the  kingdom  of  Eng- 
land than  any  other  foreign  bishop.     Mass  was  ordered  to 
be   said  in   English   instead  of  in  Latin.     Masses  for  the 
dead,  pilgrimages,  adoration  of  relics  and  images,  were  for- 
bidden, and  the  Doctrine  of  Purgatory  was  denied.     Beyond 
this  Henry  made  little  alteration  in  the  teaching  or  services 
of  the  Church. 

1536-      He,  indeed,  suppressed  monasteries  and  convents.     But 

1539    this  had  nothing  to  do  with  religious  conviction.     He  was 

in  need  of  money,  the  religious  houses  were  rich  in  land  and 

money ;     therefore   he   suppressed  them    and    took   their 

wealth  to  himself. 

Henry  needed  an  excuse  for  doing  this.  His  excuse  was 
that  the  monks  and  nuns  led  wicked  and  idle  lives,  which 
were  a  disgrace  to  religion.  In  many  cases  this  was  true. 


ENGLISH  PEOPLE  AND  THE  REFORMATION    221 

Henry,  however,  did  not  distinguish  between  the  houses  of 
good  or  ill  repute,  but  treated  all  alike.  But  the  monasteries 
and  convents  were  the  hospitals,  almshouses,  and  schools  of 
the  day,  and  the  closing  of  them  brought  misery  on  the 
people.  The  land,  too,  was  soon  filled  with  homeless, 
beggared  monks,  and  a  rising  known  as  the  Pilgrimage  of 
Grace  took  place.  But  the  rebellion  was  put  down,  and  1536 
Henry  continued  his  suppressions. 

Although  England  was  thus  separated  from  Rome  not 
by  the  zeal  of  a  reformer  but  by  the  ^command  of  a  selfish 
and  stubborn  king,  king  and  people  were  at  one.  The 
king's  action  in  breaking  with  the  pope  coincided  with  the 
wishes  of  the  people  ;  they  both  girded  at  papal  interference, 
and  both  clung  to  the  old  theology. 

But  besides  this  there  was  a  real  desire  for  reform,  and  to 
many  it  seemed  that  the  king's  reform  was  not  radical  enough. 
For  many  of  the  people  had  become  imbued  with  the  doc- 
trines of  Luther  and  Calvin,  and  wished  to  see  England  a 
Protestant  country.  This  was  not  the  king's  will.  He 
would  brook  no  opposition  to  his  will,  and  he  put  to  death 
impartially  Catholics  who  denied  his  supremacy  as  head  of 
the  Church,  and  Protestants  who  held  Calvanistic  theories 
about  the  Holy  Sacrament. 

So  in  England,  no  more  than  in  other  countries,  was  the 
Reformation  accomplished  without  bloodshed  and  persecu- 
tion. The  new  English  Church  persecuted  those  who  re- 
fused adherence,  but  not  till  Mary  Tudor  came  to  the  throne  1553 
did  the  fires  of  persecution  burn  fiercely.  She  was  an 
ardent  Catholic,  yet  as  queen  of  England  she  was  supreme 
head  of  the  Anglican  Church,  a  church  that  she  was  bound  to 
hate.  In  her  fervent  devotion  to  Rome  she  endeavoured  to 
bring  back  England  to  its  allegiance.  But  in  spite  of  cruel 
persecution  she  failed. 

Henry  VIII  had  been  able  to  impose  his  religion  on  the 
people  of  England,  because  they  themselves  desired  to  break 


222  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

with  Rome.  Mary  failed  to  impose  her  religion  on  them, 
because  her  will  was  not  theirs.  In  her  blind  fealty  to  Rome 
she  plunged  her  country  into  blood.  She  repealed  all  the 
religious  legislation  of  her  father  and  of  her  brother  Edward 
VI.  But  all  her  efforts  were  in  vain.  The  awakening  in- 
tellect of  England  became  more  and  more  Protestant  and 
national,  and  no  laws  of  princes  could  prevent  its  final 
severance  from  Rome. 

John  Knox 

In  Scotland,  also,  the  new  religion  took  root.  The  great 
1505-  reformer  there  was  John  Knox,  a  follower  of  Calvin.  The 
1572  success  of  the  Reformation  in  Scotland  was  of  great  import- 
ance to  the  history  of  Europe.  The  young  queen  of  Scots, 
Mary,  brought  up  in  France,  was  heart  and  soul  with  the 
Roman  Church.  If  she  had  had  a  united  country  behind 
her  she  might  with  the  help  of  Rome  and  France  have  made 
good  her  claim  to  the  throne  of  England.  Then  in  England 
the  Protestant  religion  might  have  been  wiped  out  for  ever, 
even  as  it  was  destined  to  be  in  France.  At  least,  so  it 
seemed  to  the  politicians  of  the  day.  Looking  back,  it 
seems  very  doubtful  if  the  awakened  spirit  of  liberty  in  Eng- 
land could  have  been  so  coerced. 

As  it  was,  Scotland  was  divided  between  the  old  religion 
and  the  new.  English  Protestants  and  Scottish  Protestants 
made  common  cause  against  the  French  and  the  Catholics, 
and  the  allied  Protestants  triumphed.  In  this  first  union 
of  religion  may  be  seen  the  beginnings  of  united  Britain. 

Sweden,  Denmark,  and  Norway 

The  Reformation  spread  even  to  Scandinavia  and  the  far 
north.  There,  at  first,  it  was  imposed  by  the  rulers  somewhat 
after  the  manner  of  the  English  Reformation.  But  there, 
too,  the  people  were  ready  for  reform,  and  the  countries 
soon  became  entirely  Protestant. 


GUSTAVUS  VASA  AND  THE  REFORMATION  223 

During  the  centuries  when  the  countries  of  south-western 
Europe  had  been  rising  to  importance,  Scandinavia  had  had 
little  effect  on  them,  and  had  been  little  effected  by  them. 
Its  history  is  chiefly  a  record  of  internal  struggles  between 
the  three  kingdoms  of  Norway,  Sweden,  and  Denmark  for 
supremacy.  In  1397,  by  the  Union  of  Calmar,  these  three 
kingdoms  were  at  length  united  under  one  ruler.  But  still, 
although  they  had  only  one  ruler,  there  was  no  real  union 
among  them. 

The  Swedes  especially  hated  the  domination  of  Denmark, 
and  more  than  once  tried  to  regain  their  independence. 
Then,  in  1520,  Christian  II  of  Denmark,  in  the  hope  of  for 
ever  crushing  Swedish  independence,  massacred  all  the 
nobles  at  Stockholm  in  cold  blood. 

This  horrible  deed  was  called  the  Stockholm  Bath  of  Blood, 
and  instead  of  crushing  Sweden's  desire  for  independence  it 
roused  the  national  spirit  as  it  had  never  been  roused  before. 
The  Swedes  threw  off  all  semblance  of  allegiance  to  Den- 
mark, and  chose  a  young  noble  named  Gustavus  Vasa  for 
their  leader.  In  1523  there  was  a  revolution  in  Denmark. 
Christian  II  was  driven  from  the  throne,  and  Gustavus  Vasa 
became  king  of  Sweden,  and  Frederick  I  of  Holstein  king  of 
Denmark  and  Norway. 

With  the  reign  of  Gustavus  Vasa  the  history  of  Sweden  1523- 
as  an  independent  kingdom  may  be  said  to  begin.     But  156° 
meanwhile  the  kingdom  was  wasted  with  war.     The  royal 
treasury  was  empty,  and  Gustavus  knew  not  where  to  turn 
for  money.     But  although  king  and  people  were  poor  the 
Church  was  rich,  and  Gustavus  determined  to  take  the  Church 
revenues  for  state  purposes. 

At  a  meeting  of  the  Diet  in  1527  he  made  clear  his  inten- 
tions. He  was  met  with  fierce  opposition  on  the  part  of  the 
bishops  who  were  present,  and  finding  he  could  not  bend  the 
Diet  to  his  will  he  rose  in  anger. 

"  Then  I  will  no  more  be  your  king,"  he  cried,  "  and  if 


224  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

you  can  find  another  who  will  please  you  better  I  will 
rejoice.  Pay  me  for  my  possessions  in  the  land,  give  me 
back  what  I  have  spent  in  your  service.  Then  I  shall  go. 
And  I  swear  solemnly  I  shall  never  come  back  to  this  de- 
based and  ungrateful  country  of  mine."  And  with  that  he 
left  them. 

But  the  Swedes  could  not  do  without  Gustavus.  It  was 
he  alone  who  held  the  country  together,  and  in  three  days 
they  yielded  to  his  demands.  Thus  by  the  will  of  one  man 
the  Reformation  was  established  in  Sweden. 

A  little  later  the  Reformation  was  established  in  Den- 
mark. Christian  II  had  been  attracted  to  the  new  religion, 
and  had  intended  to  introduce  it,  when  his  subjects  had 
rebelled  and  driven  him  from  the  throne.  His  successor, 
Frederick,  was  a  Protestant,  and  favoured  the  religion, 
1536-  but  it  was  not  until  the  reign  of  his  son  Christian  III  that  it 
1559  was  fully  established  in  the  country. 

During  his  reign  also  the  new  religion  was  established  in 
Norway.  For  unlike  Sweden,  Norway  had  failed  to  assert 
her  independence,  and  had  even  lost  her  old  status  as  a 
separate  kingdom,  and  become  a  mere  dependency  of  the 
kingdom  of  Denmark. 


CHAPTER  XL1V 

REFORMATION  PERIOD 
SPAIN,  PORTUGAL,  THE  NETHER- 
LANDS, ITALY 

IN  Charles  V's  own  kingdom  of  Spain  the  Reformation  made 
little  impression.  This  was  partly  because  there  was  not  so 
much  need  of  it.  For  the  Church  there  was  more  alive, 
and  many  of  the  worst  abuses  rampant  in  other  countries  had 

I 


NETHERLANDS  AND  THE  REFORMATION  225 

been  removed.  But  chiefly  it  was  due  to  the  fact  that  in 
Spain  heresy  was  promptly  and  severely  suppressed  by  the 
terrible  Inquisition. 

Portugal,  too,  was  hardly  touched  by  the  Reformation. 
For  there  also  the  Inquisition  was  in  force,  and  all  individual 
thought  was  quickly  stamped  out  by  it.  Very  shortly,  too, 
while  Europe  was  being  torn  by  religious  wars  Portugal  was 
to  become  for  a  time  a  mere  province  of  Spain.  For  in 
1580  Henry  I  of  Portugal  died  without  heirs,  and  Philip  II 
of  Spain  claimed  the  throne  as  the  heir  of  his  mother 
Isabella  of  Portugal.  Then  for  sixty  years  the  kings  of 
Spain  ruled  Portugal  also. 

The  Inquisition  and  the  Netherlands 

In  the  Netherlands,  which  were  at  this  time  not  an  in- 
dependent country  but  merely  the  private  possession  of 
Charles,  the  Reformation  brought  bloodshed,  persecution,  and 
war.  There  the  struggle  for  religious  freedom  was  combined 
with  the  struggle  for  political  freedom.  In  the  end  both 
were  won.  Holland  became  independent  of  Spain,  and  one  of 
the  strongest  Protestant  powers  in  Europe.  But  that  day 
had  not  yet  dawned.  In  the  meantime  Charles  determined 
to  do  what  he  liked  with  his  personal  property. 

The  Reformation  had  taken  a  great  hold  upon  the  Nether- 
lands. Even  from  quite  early  days  the  people  had  never 
been  very  submissive  to  the  pope.  Heresy  easily  took  root 
there,  andin  spite  of  horrible  persecutions  grew  and  flourished. 
Long  before  the  Reformation  the  land  swarmed  with  Wyclif- 
fites,  Hussites,  Waldenses,  and  adherents  of  many  other 
dissenting  sects.  When  at  length  the  great  Reformation 
came,  with  its  ally  the  printing-press,  it  took  root  in  the 
Netherlands  and  spread  more  rapidly  than  in  any  other 
place. 

But  Charles  was  a  politician.  He  well  understood  that 
religious  liberty  was  the  forerunner  of  political  liberty,  and 

p 


226  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

he  determined  to  stamp  out  the  new  religion.  So  the 
Inquisition  was  introduced.  The  reading  of  the  Bible  was 
forbidden,  as  were  also  all  gatherings  for  devotion  or  re- 
ligious discussion.  But  the  stolid,  industrious  people 
resisted.  Hundreds  and  thousands  were  tortured  and  put  to 
death.  Still  the  adherents  of  the  new  religion  increased, 
persecution  only  making  them  more  determined  to  walk 
in  the  way  upon  which  they  had  set  their  feet.  It  was  left 
for  the  heirs  of  Charles  to  reap  the  harvest  he  had  sown, 
and  Holland  was  lost  alike  to  Spain,  to  the  Empire,  and  to 
the  pope. 

Italy  and  the  Reformation 

In  Italy,  divided  as  it  was  at  this  time  between  the  rule 
of  the  pope  and  the  rule  of  Spain,  the  Reformation  made 
considerable  headway.  Italians  lived  beneath  the  shadow  of 
the  papacy,  they  were  nearer  than  others  to  the  fountain  of 
evil,  and  many  devout  men  longed  to  see  the  Church  made 
pure  and  holy.  There  was,  too,  a  great  deal  of  intercourse 
between  Germany  and  Italy.  Both  scholars  and  merchants 
constantly  crossed  the  Alps,  and  Luther's  doctrines  soon 
found  many  sympathizers  among  Italians.  But  in  Italy, 
as  in  Spain,  the  reform  movement  was  rigorously  repressed. 
The  Inquisition  did  its  work  thoroughly,  and  Italy  remained 
within  the  fold  of  the  Church. 

Broadly  speaking  then,  when  the  Reformation  had  worked 
itself  out,  the  whole  of  north-western  Europe,  the  half  of 
Christendom,  was  lost  to  the  papacy.  England,  Scotland, 
Norway,  Sweden,  Denmark,  Holland,  northern  Germany, 
and  part  of  Switzerland  had  adopted  the  new  religion  in 
one  form  or  another.  Italy,  Spain,  Portugal,  Ireland,  and, 
in  the  long  run,  France,  with  portions  of  southern  Germany, 
clung  to  the  old  religion. 

The  Reformation  did  not  bring  complete  freedom' of  re- 
ligious thought  or  real  toleration.  For  the  reformers  merely 


THE  COUNTER-REFORMATION  227 

changed  an  infallible  Church  for  an  infallible  Bible.  Each 
reformer,  Luther,  Zwingli,  or  Calvin  produced  his  own  dogma, 
and  would  admit  of  no  salvation  for  those  who  differed 
from  him.  So  there  arose  countless  divisions  among  the 
Protestants,  divisions  which  did  much  to  check  their  further 
progress. 

The  reformers  fought  and  died  for  freedom  of  conscience. 
But  they  permitted  no  freedom  to  those  who  differed  from 
themselves,  and  one  Protestant  sect,  when  it  had  the  power, 
was  as  ready  to  persecute  another  as  the  older  church  had 
been.  Still,  the  principle  of  the  right  of  private  judgment 
had  been  admitted.  It  could  not  again  be  denied,  and  even 
more  than  in  what  it  did  the  value  of  the  Reformation  lies 
in  the  fact  that  it  made  possible,  and  prepared  the  way  for, 
modern  toleration. 

The  Counter-Reformation  :  Ignatius  Loyola. 

It  also  reformed  and  purified  the  Church  of  Rome.  As 
country  after  country  revolted,  the  ancient  Church  awoke 
from  her  sloth  of  centuries,  resolved  to  make  an  end  of  the 
evils  which  had  made  her  a  reproach  and  a  byword,  and  the 
Counter-Reformation  began.  In  1545  the  Council  of  Trent 
was  called,  and  a  plain  restatement  of  the  Church's  doctrines 
was  made.  Many  causes  of  stumbling  to  devout  Catholics 
were  removed,  and  henceforth  no  man  of  evil  life  has  sat 
upon  the  throne  of  St.  Peter. 

This  Counter-Reformation  stayed  the  force  of  the  reformers 
even  more  than  the  dissensions  among  Protestants.  To 
remain  at  peace  within  the  Church  purified  was  all  that 
many  a  devout  Catholic  asked.  And  soon  the  Church 
found  a  powerful  helper  in  Ignatius  Loyola,  a  Spaniard, 
who,  in  1540,  founded  the  Society  of  Jesus.  The  aim  of 
this  society  was  to  defend  the  Church  and  spread  its 
doctrines.  Soon  its  well-disciplined,  scholarly,  and  devoted 
members  were  to  be  found  all  over  the  world.  And 


228  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

to  them  the  Church  owed  much  of  its  re-established 
authority. 

After  the  Reformation  the  borders  of  the  ancient  Church 
were  doubtless  narrowed.  Yet  in  a  sense  it  was  stronger 
than  it  had  been  for  centuries.  Once  again  its  prelates 
showed  to  the  world  the  beauty  of  holiness,  and  by  godly 
living  made  for  the  Church  a  bulwark  against  further 
assaults  from  without  or  from  within. 

Yet  religious  freedom  was  by  no  means  won.  Europe 
was  divided  into  two  hostile  camps.  Neither  side  had  as 
yet  learned  toleration  of  the  other,  and  for  long  years  the 
wars  which  shook  the  continent  were  wars  of  religion. 


SUPPLEMENTARY  CHAPTER 

THE  EFFECT  OF  AMERICAN 
CONQUESTS  ON  SPAIN 

THE  reign  of  Charles  V  was  the  age  of  Spanish  conquest  and 
domination  in  America.  This  conquest  had  a  great  effect 
first  on  Spain  and  ultimately  on  Europe.  For  Spain  was 
the  first  European  nation  to  found  an  overseas  empire. 
Yet  it  was  no  empire  in  the  modern  sense  of  the  word. 
Mexico,  Peru,  and  Chili  were  explored  and  exploited,  but 
they  were  not  colonized  as  we  understand  the  word.  The 
conquerors  did  not  reclaim  or  cultivate  the  land.  Indeed, 
they  were  actually  forbidden  to  grow  vines  or  grain  in  the 
conquered  countries,  lest  Spanish  trade  in  wine  and  corn 
should  be  injured. 

They  were  also  forbidden  to  emigrate  and  settle  there. 
For  Spain,  far  from  requiring  an  outlet  for  superfluous 
population,  was  already  too  thinly  populated,  foreign  wars 
being  a  constant  drain  upon  its  manhood.  Emigration, 


THE  SPANIARDS  AS  COLONISTS  229 

therefore,  instead  of  being  a  necessity,  was  an  actual 
menace. 

The  Spaniards,  at  the  same  time,  were  intensely  jealous 
of  their  overseas  trade.  They  tried  to  keep  it  entirely  for 
themselves,  and  shut  out  not  only  all  other  European 
nations  but  even  all  Spain  except  Castile.  This  produced 
smuggling  and  piracy  on  an  enormous  scale.  And  soon  the 
proud  galleons  of  Spain,  which  at  one  time  could  sail  the 
seas  in  safety,  were  obliged  to  go  in  companies  to  avoid  the 
attack  of  pirates. 

All  the  Spaniards  did  then  was  to  procure  as  much  gold 
and  silver  from  these  lands  as  they  could.  And  this  they 
procured  not  by  their  own  toil  but  by  the  forced  labour  of 
the  natives  whom  they  had  enslaved.  Soon  gold  and  silver 
poured  into  Spain.  It  was  from  America  that  Charles 
drew  much  of  the  wealth  which  enabled  him  to  carry  on  his 
many  wars.  With  that  wealth  at  command  he  might  have 
succeeded  in  dominating  Europe,  and  in  founding  the  world 
empire  he  desired  to  found,  but  for  one  thing  which  wrecked 
all  his  plans.  This  was  the  Reformation.  By  it  his  policy 
was  divided,  his  alliances  complicated,  his  great  ambitions 
baffled.  Thus,  for  him,  in  a  manner  the  conquest  of  America 
and  the  Reformation  annulled  each  other. 

But  although  gold  and  silver  poured  into  Spain  from  the 
New  World,  Spain  became  no  richer.  For  the  Spaniards 
spent  this  easily  won  wealth  like  water.  Most  of  it  went  out 
of  Spain  again  to  pay  for  the  hire  of  foreign  soldiers,  and  for 
foreign  luxuries,  which  the  Spaniard  could  no  longer  do  with- 
out. For  Spain  had  no  manufactures,  and  as  its  population 
constantly  lessened  in  numbers  even  agriculture  was 
neglected. 

At  length  the  country  could  not  grow  enough  corn  and 
wine  to  supply  the  demand  of  its  own  people,  and  foreign 
merchants  supplied  these  things.  So  the  enormous  wealth 
of  America  profited  Spain  not  at  all.  The  country  gradually 


230  A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 

grew  poorer.  Noble  beggary  became  the  fashion.  The 
Spaniard,  born  generous  and  grown  proud,  disdained  to  toil, 
and  the  labour  in  field  and  workshop  was  left  to  foreigners. 
Their  labours  again  brought  Spain  no  profit,  for  having  made 
their  fortunes  they  returned  home  carrying  their  wealth 
with  them. 

Thus  once  again  seeking  to  dominate  Europe  a  great  ruler 
cast  his  own  kingdom  down  from  the  high  place  she  had  won. 
With  both  hands  the  Spaniards  flung  away  the  golden  prize 
which  their  daring  seamen  had  wrested  from  the  ocean,  and 
the  New  World  became  the  heritage  of  another  race. 

While  the  mother-country  declined  the  colonies  could  not 
prosper.  Under  the  inhuman  treatment  of  their  conquerors 
the  native  populations  of  these  colonies  dwindled,  and  a 
bitter  hatred  grew  up  between  them  and  their  masters. 
Charles,  indeed,  took  some  interest  in  his  American  posses- 
sions, and  even  tried  to  make  good  laws  for  them.  But  he 
was  too  much  preoccupied  by  his  efforts  to  dominate  P^urope 
to  make  much  headway.  He  knew  little  of  the  principles 
of  commerce,  and  he  was  utterly  ignorant  of  the  modern 
ideas  of  colonization,  the  Cortes,  or  parliament,  equally  so. 
Consequently  the  dealings  of  Spain  with  her  overseas 
possessions  is  a  record  of  mistakes  and  lost  opportunities. 


CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


CEN- 
TURY 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

IOO 
B.C. 

A.D. 
IOO 

Caesar's     invasion 
of  Britain,  55-54 

Social    War    in     Rome, 
90-89 
Jerusalem  taken  by  Pom- 
pey,  63 
Conquests    of    Caesar    in 
Gaul,  58-51 

Invasion  of  Brit- 
ain    by    Aulus 
Plautius,  43 
Heroic    revolt    of 
Boadicea,  61 
Final  conquest  of 
Britain  by  Agri- 
cola,  78-85 

Claudius,     Emperor     at 
Rome,  41 
Nero,  Emperor,  54 

Destruction    of    Jerusa- 
lem, 70 

Roman  Occupation  of  Britain 

200 

Hadrian,  Emperor,  117 

300 

Defeat  of  the  Goths  by 
Claudius  II,  269-270 
Maximian,     Joint     Em- 
peror with  Diocletian, 
286 

1 

4OO 

Alban,  first  Chris- 
tian  martyr,  304 
Beginning  of  Raids 
of  Picts,  Scots, 
and   Saxons,   c. 
350 

Constantine    the    Great 
(sole  Emperor),  324 
Goths  imploring  protec- 
tion, allowed  by  Valens 
to  cross  the  Danube,  376 
Theodosius     the     Great 
(sole  Emperor),  393 

i 

231 


232 


A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CEN- 
TURY 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

Emperor  Honorius 

Alaric  in  Italy,  400-404  ; 

i 

abandons    Brit- 

Rome taken,  410 

ain,  410 

Goths  in  Spain  and  Gaul, 

414 

Vandals  in  Africa,  429 

in 

Hengist  and  Hor- 

Attila    defeated    at 

i 

CJ 

sa  land  in  Bri- 

Chalons, 451 

3 

tain,  449 

Nominal  reunion  of  the 

in 

Empires    under   Zeno, 

B 

476 

*o 

Odoacer  governs  Italy  as 

4-> 

Patrician,  476-493 

O 

Clovis,      King      of      the 

ii 

0< 

Franks,  481-511 

a 

o 

Reign    of    Theodoric    in 

in 

u 

Italy,  493-526 

5OO 

co 

CUO 

4) 

Battle    of    Mount 

Justinian,  Emperor,  527- 

IV 

Badon,  520 

565 

H 

Belisarius  and  Narses  re- 

cover Italy,  536-555 

Lombard  settlements  in 

V 

Italy,  568 

Birth  of  Mahomet,  569 

VI 

Arrival  of  St.  Au- 

Gregory   the    Great    be- 

V 

6OO 

gustine,  597 

comes  Pope,  590 

X 

Preaching   of    Ai- 

Death  of  Mahomet  :  Abu 

vi  and 

S    OT 

dan,  634 

Bekr,  Caliph,  632 

VII 

^  £> 

Saracen      Conquest      of 

VII 

•£  > 

'$.4 

Syria    and     Palestine, 

•°d 

(632-639) 

o  ri 

Synod  of  Whitby, 

Of  Persia,  (632-651) 

XXIII 

d     r 
S     i 

664 

Of    Egypt   and    Africa, 

VII 

700 

11 

(638-709) 

o  •£ 

Saracen       Conquest      of 

VII 

a)  ^ 

Spain,  711-713 

*3bl 

Iconoclast      controversy 

IX 

|| 

in  Italy,  726-775 
Rule  of  Charles  Martel  — 

VIII 

Battle  of  Tours,  732 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


233 


CEN- 
TURY 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

800 

Struggle  for  supremacy 
between  Northurnbria, 
Mercia,  and  Wessex 

First  Danish  Raid, 
c-  787 

Pepin,      King      of      the 
Franks,  752 
Saracens    driven   out    of 
Gaul,  759 
Charles  the  Great  defeats 
the  Lombards,      774  ; 
crowned    Emperor    of 
the    West,    800.     The 
beginning  of  the  Holy 
Roman  Empire 

VIII 
VIII 
IX 

QOO 

Egbert  overlord  of 
Britain,  829 
Alfred,  871-901 
Treaty    of    Wed- 
more,  878 
Edward  the  Elder, 
901-924 

Lewis    the    Pious,    Em- 
peror, 814 
Saracen       Conquest      of 
Sicily,  827-878 
Treaty  of  Verdun,  843 
Rurick  settles  in  Russia, 
862 
Paris  besieged  by  North- 
men, 885 

X 

xi  and 

XIV 
X 
XIII 

XII 

</) 

<u 

S 

•a 

c3 

VI 

W) 

d 

S 

§ 
tf 

oJ 
OT 

4-> 

S 

IOOO 

Athelstan,       924- 
940 
Edgar,  959~975 
Ethelred  the  Un- 
ready, 978-1016 

Settlement    of    Rollo   in 
France,  911 
Otto     the     Great,     936- 
973  ;   defeats  Hungari- 
ans at  Lechfield,  953; 
crowned  Emperor,  962 
Vladimir's  rule   in  Rus- 
sia, 980-1015 

XII 
XIX 

XIII 

1  100 

Massacre  of  Danes, 

IOO2 

Knut,  1016-1035 
Restoration         of 
English       Line, 
1042  :     Edward 
the     Confessor, 
1042-1066 
Norman  Conquest, 
1066 
William   I,   1066- 
1087 

Conrad  II,   King,   1024  ; 
Emperor,  1027 
End  of  the  Ommiad  Dy- 
nasty in  vSpain,  1031 
Burgundy  becomes  a  fief 
of  the  Empire,  1033 
Henry  III,  King,   1039  ; 
Emperor,  1046 
Henry  IV,   King,    1056  ; 
Emperor,  1085 
Henry's  great  strife  with 
Pope  ;     first     ex-com- 
municated, 1076 

.    XX 

XX 
XX 

Norman 
Kings 

234 


A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CEN- 
TURY 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

William       Rufus, 

Norman      Conquest     of 

xiv  and 

1087-1100 

Sicily,  1060-1090 

XXVII 

Gregory  VII,  Pope,  1073- 

1085 

Henry    IV    at    Canossa, 

XX 

1077 

IIOO 

The  First  Crusade,  1096 

xxin  and 

bO 

XXIV 

5 

Henry  1,  1  1  oo-i  135 

Henry    V,     King,    1106; 

XX 

a 

Battle  of  Tenche- 

Emperor,  mi 

a 

brai,  1106 

Alfonso  the  Battler  takes 

XXXII 

g 

Zaragosa  from  Moors, 

1118 

o 

Concordat     of     Worms, 

XX 

1122 

Lothaire  of  Saxony,  King, 

XX 

1125  ;   Emperor,  1133 

Lothaire  does  homage  to 

the  Pope  in  respect  of 

Italian  lands,  1133 

Stephen   of  Blois, 

Norman      Kingdom      of 

XIV 

II35-H54 

Sicily,  1130 

Second  Crusade,  1147 

XXV 

Henry    II,    1154- 

Frederick       Barbarossa, 

1189 

King,  1152  ;  Emperor, 

Constitutions      of 

1  155  ;  defeated  by  Lom- 

XXVII 

Clarendon,  1164 

bards,  1176 

Strongbow's      in- 

Lombard League  founded 

vasion    of    Ire- 

1167 

land,  1171 

Saladin    overthrows    the 

XXIII 

CO 

60 

Murder  of  Becket, 

Fatimite  Dynasty,  1171 

1 

1170 

Philip  Augustus,  King  of 

XXI 

K> 

France,  1180 

V 

Saladin  takes  Jerusalem, 

XXIII 

3 

CD 

1187     • 

00 

Third  Crusade,  1189 

xxiv  and 

£ 

XXV 

d 

Teutonic    Order    of 

XXIV 

S 

Knights  founded  1189 

Richard  I,    1189- 

Henry      VI,      Emperor, 

1199 

1190-1197 

Capture   of   Acre, 

Conquest  of  Sicily  by  the 

XIV 

1191 

Emperor,    Henry    VI, 

John       Lackland, 

1194 

1199-1216 

Innocent       III,       Pope, 

XXVII 

I2OO 

1198-1216 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


235 


CEN- 
TURY 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

Double  Election  :   Philip 

XXVII 

of  Swabia,  1198-1208; 

Otto  IV,  1198-1215 

Loss  of  Normandy 

Latin  Conquest  of  Con- 

XXV 

1204 

stantinople,  1204 

Otto    IV   of   Brunswick, 

XXVII 

Emperor,  1208-1214 

awe?  xxx 

Battle     of     Bou- 

Crusade  against  the  Albi- 

XL 

vines,  1214 

genses,  1208 

MagnaCarta,  1215 

Rise  of  Ottoman  Turks 

XXVI 

Henry  III,  1216- 

Fifth  Crusade,  1228 

1272 

Frederick  II  crowns  him- 

xxv and 

self  King  of  Jerusalem, 

XXVII 

1228 

Battle    of    Lewes, 

Teutonic  Order  conquers 

1264 

Prussia,  1230-1283 

5) 

Simon    de    Mont- 

Interregnum,  1254-1273 

XXX 

00 

a 

fort's        Parlia- 

Conquest   of    Sicily    by 

xxx  and 

3 

ment,  1265 

Charles  of  Anjou,  1266 

XXXVI 

+j 

Edward   I,    1272- 

Gregory  X,  Pope,  1271 

v 

d 

1307 

Rudolf    I    of   Hapsburg, 

| 

Conquest  of  Wales 

1273-1291 

J 

1283 

Sicilian  vespers,  1282 

XXXVI 

1 

Model  Parliament, 

Hapsburgs  become  over- 

E 

1295 

lords  of  Austria,  1282 

Baliol  resigns   his 

Beginning   of  the   Swiss 

XXXV 

crown    to    Ed- 

League, 1291 

1300 

ward 

Scots  revolt  under 

Popes  resident  at  Avig- 

XXVIII 

Bruce,  1306 

non,  1306 

Edward  II,  1307- 

The    Swiss    defeat    the 

XXXV 

1327 

Austrians   at   Morgar- 

Battle  of  Bannock- 

ten,  1315 

burn,  1314 

End  of  the  Capetian  Dy- 

XXVII 

Edward  III,  1327- 

nasty   in    direct    line, 

*377 

1328 

Beginning  of  Hun- 

Spread  of  Greek  culture 

XXXVIII 

dred    Years' 

in   Italy  by   Petrarch 

War,  1338 

and  Boccaccio 

I^OO 

Battle    of    Cre9y, 
1346 

The  Golden  Bull,  1356 

xxx 

236 


A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CEN- 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

TURY 

Black  Death,  1348 

Return  of  the  Popes  to 

Battle  of  Poitiers, 

Rome,  1376 

1356 

The    Swiss    defeat    the 

XXXV 

Treaty     of     Bre- 

Austrians  at  Sempach 

tigny,  1360 

1386  ;    at  Nafels,  1388 

Richard  II,  1377- 

John    Huss,    1370-1414; 

XL 

1399 

preaches      reform     in 

Peasants'   Revolt, 

Bohemia 

1  38  1  (Wat  Tyler) 



Henry  IV,    1399- 

Union  of  Calmar,  1397 

xv  and 

1400 

1413 

XVI 

Henry     V,    1413- 

Madeira    discovered    by 

XXXIII 

1422 

Portuguese,  1418 

VJ 
tUO 

Battle     of     Agin- 

Turks  besiege  Constanti- 

G 
•  r-j 

JU 

court,  1415 

nople,  1422 

M 

i 

Treaty  of  Troyes, 

Standing     army     estab- 

4J 

<u 

rt 

1420 

lished  in  France,  1439 

s 

3 

Henry    VI,    1422- 

Frederick      III,      King, 

XXXV 

rt3 

"o 

1461 

1440  ;   Emperor,  1452 

-t-> 

pH 

§ 

Siege   of   Orleans, 

Battle  of  St.  Jacob,  near 

XXXV 

o 

ft 

1428 

Basle,  1444 

fi 

Burning   of    Joan 
of  Arc,  1431 

Invention  of  Printing 
Turks  capture  Constanti- 

xxvi and 

End    of    Hundred 

nople,  1453 

XXXIX 

Years'         War, 

Louis     XI,     1461-1483 

XXXI 

1453 

established    a     strong 

Beginning  of  the 

Central      Government 

Wars      of     the 

in  France 

Roses,  1455 

Prince  Henry  of  Portu- 

XXXIII 

gal,      1394-1460,      en- 

Edward IV,  1461- 

courages  navigation 

1483 

Ivan    the    Great,    1462- 

•a 

1505  (Progress  of  Rus- 

XXXIV 

1 

Battle  of  Barnet, 

sia) 

Q 

1471 

Union  of  Castile  and  Ara- 

& 

Edward  V,  1483 

gon,  1469 

XXXII 

3 
O 

Richard  III,  1483- 

BartholomewDiaz  rounds 

« 

1485 

the     Cape     of     Good 

XXXIII 

Battle      of     Bos- 

Hope,  1486 

worth,  1485 

Christopher       Columbus 

Henry  VII,  1485- 

discovers          America, 

XXXIII 

1509 

1492 

CHRONOLOGICAL  TABLE 


237 


CEN- 
TURY 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

Conquest     of     Granada, 

XXXII 

1492 

Charles  VIII,  1483-1498  ; 

XXXVI 

Battle  of  Fornova,  1495 

Italy    and    the    Borgias 

XXXVI 

and  Savonarola 

Switzerland      practically 

XXXV 

independent  ;       Peace 

I5OO 

of  Basle,  1499 

Henry  VIII,  1509- 

Maximilian  I,  takes  the 

XXXV 

1547 

title  of  Emperor,  1508 

Pope  Julius  II  drives  the 

XXXVII 

French    out    of    Italy, 

1512 

O 

Christianll,  King  of  Den- 

XLIII 

a 

mark     and     Norway, 

a 

1513 

|H 

O 

Francis  I,  King  of  France 

XXXVII 

T? 

1515 

9 

H 

Franco-Spanish    War   in 

XXXVII 

Italy,  Battle  of  Marig- 

nano,  1515 

Charles  V,  King  of  Spain, 

XXXVII 

1516;  Emperor,  1519 

Field  of  the  Cloth 

Martin  Luther  nails  his 

XL 

of  Gold;  1520 

theses  on  the  door  of 

the   CasJe   Church    of 

Wittenberg,  1517 

Francis    I    defeated    at 

Pa  via,  1525 

Reformation  established 

XLIII 

in  Sweden  by  Gustavus 

Vasa,  1527 

Henry       acknow- 

Nicolas Copernicus,  1473- 

XXXIX 

ledged  Head  of 

J543>  teaches  the  new 

the    Church    of 

astronomy 

England,  1531 

Protestant  Creed  laid  be- 

XLI 

Pilgrimage     of 

fore  the  Diet  of  Augs- 

Grace, 1537 

burg,  1530 

Death  of  Zwingli,  1531 

XLII 

John  Calvin   commences 

XLII 

his  mission  in  Switzer- 

1600 

land,  1532 

238 


A  SHORT  EUROPEAN  HISTORY 


CEN- 
TURY 

BRITISH 

CONTINENTAL 

CHAP. 

Ivan  the  Terrible,  1533- 

XXXIV 

1584,  Czar  of   All  the 

Russias,  tries  to  obtain 

a  seaboard 

<D 

a 

Edward  VI,  1547- 

The     Schmalkaldic  War 

XLI 

a 

1.553 

breaks  out,  1546 

IH 

Mary,  1553-1558 

Galileo,    1564-1642,   and 

XXXIX 

O 

T3 

Elizabeth,       1558- 

Giordano  Bruno,  1548- 

3 
L_| 
~ 

1603 

1600,  spread  new  ideas 

John  Knox,  1505- 

on  astronomy 

1572,     preaches 

Refomation     in 

Scotland 

I6OO 

INDEX 


ABSALON,  archbishop  of  Lund,  71, 
72 

Abu  Bekr,  first  caliph,  27 

Accolade,  109 

Adelheid,  Italian  princess,  93 

Adrian  I,  pope,  37 

Adrian  IV,  pope,  134 

A.E.I.O.U.,  184 

Aetius,  5 

Agincourt,  battle  of,  150 

Aids,  83 

Aistulph,  king  of  the  Lombards,  35 

Alaric,  3 

Albert  of  Mecklinburg,  75 

Albigenses,  205 

Albion,  king  of  the  Lombards,  19 

Alcuin  of  York,  40 

Alexander  II,  pope,  99 

Alexander  III,  pope,  134,  135 

Alexander  VI,  pope,  172,  190,  193 

Alexius  Comnenus,  Byzantine  em- 
peror, 116 

Alexius  III,  Byzantine  emperor,  126 

Alexius  IV,  Byzantine  emperor,  126 

Alexius  V,  Byzantine  emperor,  127 

Alfonso  I,  king  of  Portugal,  164 

Alfonso  III,  king  of  Portugal,  164 

Alfonso  of  Aragon,  king  of  Sicily,  1 89 

Alfred  the  Great.  57,  58 

Anacletius  II,  pope,  67,  68 

Angelo,  Michael,  199 

Arcadius,  Roman  emperor,  2 

Arianism,  g 

Arms,  9 

Ataulphus,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  3, 
28 

Askold,  59,  61 

Athelstane,  king  of  England,  77 

Attila,  4,  6 

Augsburg,  confession  of,  212 
diet  of,  212 
Peace  of,  213 

Avignon,  141 


BABYLONISH  Captivity,  141 
Bacon,  Roger,  199 
Baldwin  I,  Latin  emperor,  127 
Baldwin  II,  Latin  emperor,  127 
Barbarossa,  German  emperor,  133, 

137 

Basil  II,  Byzantine  emperor,  64 
Basil  III,  grand  duke,  175 
Belisarius,  15,  1 6 
Benedict  XII,  pope,  154 
Berenger,  king,  93 
Black  Death,  75,  147,  149,  156 
Blotsweyne,  king  of  Sweden,  74 
Boccaccio,  198 

Boniface  VIII,  pope,  139,  141 
Borgia,  Caesar,  193 
Borgia,  Rodrigo,  190 
Bornhoved,  battle  of,  73 
Bouvines.  battle  of,  104,  136 
Bretigny,  treaty  of,  149 
Bruno,  Giordano,  204 

CABOT,  John,  172 

Calais,  fall  of,  147 

Calixtus  II,  pope,  98 

Calmar,  union  of,  73,  75,  81,  223 

Calvin,  John,  217 

Cambrai,  league  of,  194 

Canossa,  97 

Caxton,  William,  200 

Charlemagne,   37,    38,    39,    40,   41, 

42,  43,  44 
Charles  of  Anjou,  king  of  Sicily,  152, 

188 
Charles  the  Bold,  duke  of  Burgundy, 

181,  182,  185 

Charles  the  Hammer,  32,  33,  34 
Charles  the  Simple,  55 
Charles  IV,  icing  of  France,  143 
Charles  V,  king  of  France,  149 
Charles  VI,  king  of  France,  150 
Charles  VII,  king  of  France,   150, 

157.  J58 


239 


240 


INDEX 


Charles  VIII,  king  of  France,  189, 

190,  191,  192 
Charles  IV,  German  emperor,  154, 

155,  156.  179 
Charles  V4   German  emperor,   195, 

196,  210,  212,  213,  214,  224,  225 
Chivalry,  107 

Chosroes,  king  of  Persia,  27 
Christian  II,  king  of  Denmark,  223, 

224 
Christian    III,    king    of    Denmark, 

224 

Clement  V,  pope,  141 
Clement  VI,  pope,  154,  188 
Clement  VII,  pope,  220 
Clermont,  conference  of,   117 
Clotilda,  queen  of  the  Franks,  9 
Clovis,  king  of  the  Franks,  8,  9,  10 
Columbus,    Christopher,    171,    172, 

200 
Conrad  of  Franconia,  German  eni- 

peror,  92 

Conrad  II,  German  emperor,  71,  94 
Conrad  IV,  German  emperor,  152 
Conradin,  king  of  Sicily,  152 
Constance  of  Sicily,  135 
Constantino  the  Great,  i 
Constantine  VI,  Byzantine  emperor, 

41 

Constantine    VII,    Byzantine    em- 
peror, 64 
Constantine  Palaeologus,  last  of  the 

Byzantine  emperors,  131 
Constantinople,  founding  of,  i,  2 

fall  of,  131,  160,  184,  198 
Constitutium  Constantini,  41,  42 
Copernicus,  Nicolas,  202 
Coster,  Janszoon,  200 
Cranmer,  220 
Cre9y,  battle  of,  146,  155 
Crespy,  treaty  of,  213 
Crusade,  first,  116 

second,  125 

third,  125 

fourth,  125 

fifth,  136 
Counter  Reformation,  227 

"  DEFENDER  of  the  Faith,"  219 
Desiderius,  king  of  the  Lombards, 

38 
Diaz,  Bartholomew,  170 


Dir,  59 

Donation  of  Pepin,  36,  37 

Dues,  86 

Du  Guesclin,  149 

EASTERLINGS,  137 

Edward  II,  king  of  England,  143 

Edward  III,  king  of  England,  143 

Edward  VI,  king  of  England,  222 

Eleanor  of  Aquitaine,  103 

Electors,  153,  156 

Eric  of  Pomerania,  king  of  Denmark, 

Norway  and  Sweden,  73,  75 
Eric  (saint),  king  of  Sweden,  74 
Etheldred,  king  of  England,  79 

False  Decretals,  41 

Fealty,  oath  of,  83 

Feudalism,  82 

Fiefs,  82 

Ferdinand,  king  of  Spain,  164,  166, 

193.  195 

Fornova,  battle  of,  190 
Francis  I,  king  of  France,  174,  195, 

213,  218 
Frederick   I    of    Holstein,    king   of 

Denmark  and  Sweden;  223 

GAISERIC,  king  of  the  Vandals,  u 

Galilio,  203 

Gama,  Vasco  da,  171,  200 

Gelimer,  king  of  the  Vandals,  15 

Gendhis  Khan,  131 

Ghibelines,  133,  186 

Godfrey  de  Bouillon,  king  of  Jeru- 
salem, 121 

Golden  Bull,  156 

Gorm,  king  of  Denmark,  70 

Grace,  pilgrimage  of,  221 

Granson,  battle  of,  181 

Great  Interregnum,  152 

Gregory  I  the  Great,  pope,  20,  21,  22 

Gregory  III,  pope,  34 

Gregory  VII,  pope,  96,  97,  98 

Gregory  IX,  pope,  136 

Guelphs,  133,  1 86 

Guises,  218 

Guingate;  battle  of,  194 

Gustavus  Vasa,  king  of  Sweden,  221, 
224 

Gutenberg,  Johan,  200 

Guthrun  the  Dane,  58 


INDEX 


241 


HAKON  the  Good,  king  of  Norway, 

77.78 

Hakon  VI,  king  of  Norway,  75,  8 1 
Hansa  League,  136,  137 
Harold  Haarfager,  king  of  Norway, 

76 

Harun  Alraschid,  40 
Hegira,  25 

Henry  the  Navigator,  170 
Henry,  count  of  Schwerin,  72,  73 
Henry  I,  king  of  England,  68,  102 
Henry  II,  king  of  England,  103,  134 
Henry  V,  king  of  England,  150 
Henry  VI,  king  of  England,  150,  157 
Henry  VII,  king  of  England,  172 
Henry  VIII,  king  of  England,  219, 

221 
Henry  I,  German  emperor,  70,  71, 

92,  93 

Henry  II,  German  emperor,  94 
Henry  III,  German  emperor,  95 
Henry  IV,  German  emperor,  96,  97, 

98,  119 
Henry  V,  German  emperor,  98,  100, 

132 

Henry  II,  king  of  France,  218 
Henry  I,  king  of  Portugal,  225 
Heraclius,  Byzantine  emperor,  27 
Holy  League,  194 
Holy  Roman  Empire,  beginning  of, 

42 

Homage,  82 

Honorius,  Roman  emperor,  2 
Hugh  Capet,  101 
Humanists,  198 

Hundred  Years'  War,  143,  160 
Huns,  3,  5,  6 
Huss,  John,  205 
Hussites,  225 

ICONOCLASTS,  41 
Igor,  60,  61 
Indulgences,  207,  216 
Inge,  king  of  Sweden,  74 
Innocent  II,  pope,  67,  68 
Innocent  III,  pope,  139 
Innocent  IV,  pope,  136 
Inquisition,  165,  166,  226 
Trene,  Byzantine  empress,  41 
Isaac  II,  Byzantine  emperor,  125, 

127 
Isabella,  queen  of  Edward  II,  143 


Isabella,  queen  of  Spain,  164,  166, 

167,  171 

Ivan  III,  grand  duke  of  Russia,  175 
Ivan  IV,  czar  of  Russia,  175,  176, 

177,  178 

JEBAL  Tarick,  29 

Jerusalem,    Christian   kingdom   of, 

121,  128 

oan  of  Arc,  158.  160 
oanna,  Spanish  princess,  185 
oanna  II,  queen  of  Sicily,  189 
ohn,  king  of  England,  104, 136, 139 

John,  king  of  France,  148 

John  XXII,  pope,  153,  154 

Julius  II,  pope,  193 

Justin  II,  Byzantine  emperor,  19 

Justinian  the  Great,  15,  17,  19 

KAABAH,  22,  23,  25,  26 

Kappel,  battle  of,  217 

Katharine  of  Aragon,  219 

"  King  of  Bourges,"  157 

Knights,  107 

Knights  Errant,  no 

Knights  of  St.  John,  121,  122,  123 

Knights  Templars,  121,  123,  142 

Knights,  Teutonic,  124 

Knox,  John,  217,  222 

Knut  the  Great,  58,  70,  71,  72,  74, 

80,  81 

Knut  VI,  king  of  Denmark,  72 
Koran,  25 

LEGNANO,  battle  of,  135 
Leo  I,  pope,  5,  6,  n,  12 
Leo  III,  pope,  42 
Leo  X,  pope,  194,  208,  219 
Lollards,  205 
Lombards,  3,  4,  19,  22 
Louis  the  Pious,  44 
Louis  the  Faineant,  91,  101 
Louis  VI,  king  of  France,  68, 102, 103 
Louis  VII,  king  of  France,  103,  125 
Louis  X,  king  of  France,  142,  143 
Louis  XI,  king  of  France,  161,  181 
Louis  XII,  king  of  France,  192,  195 
Leopold,  duke  of  Austria,  179 
Lothaire  the  Saxon,   German  em- 
peror, 100 

Lewis   IV,   German   emperor,    153, 
154,  155,  179 


242 


INDEX 


Loyola,  Ignatius,  227 
Ludovico  the  Moor,  189 
Luitprand,  king  of  the  Lombards, 

34>35 
Luther,  Martin,  208,  210,  227 

MAGELLAN,  200 

Magnus,  king  of  Norway,  81 

Magnus   II,   king  of   Norway  and 

Sweden,  75 

Margaret  of  Denmark,  73,  75,  81 
Marignano,  battle  of,  195 
Mary,  queen  of  England,  221 
Mary,  queen  of  Scots,  222 
Maurice,  Byzantine  emperor.  20,  21 
Maurice,  duke  of  Saxony,  213 
Maximilian  I.  German  emperor,  182, 

184,  189,  195 
Mayfield,  39 

Mayors  of  the  palace,  32 
Mecca,  23,  26 
Medici,  Piero,  191 
Michael  I,  Byzantine  emperor,  44 
Michael  VIII,  Byzantine  emperor, 

127 

Missi  Dominici,  39 
Mohammed,  22,  23,  24,  25,  26,  27 
Mohammed  II,  sultan,  132 
Morat,  battle  of,  181 
Morgarten,  battle  of,  179 
Muskovy,  175 
Myklegaard,  61 

NAFELS,  battle  of.  180 
Narses,  16,  17 
Nations,  battle  of,  5 
Nicholas  II,  pope,  67 
Nicopolis,  battle  of,  131 
Norse  discovery  of  America,  52 
Nuremberg,  peace  of,  213 

ODOACER  the  German,  12,  13 

Olaf  Skettkonung,  king  of  Sweden, 

74.  79 
Olaf  Tryggvason,  king  of  Norway, 

78,79 
Olaf  Haroldson  (Saint  Olaf),  king 

of  Norway,  80 
Oleg,  60,  61,  62 
Orleans,  siege  of,  157,  158 
Ostrogoths,  3,  17 
Otto  I,  German  emperor,  93,  94 


Otto  IV,  German  emperor,  136 
Ottoman  Turks,  130,  131 

Pages,  107 

Papal  States,  founded,  37 

Paschal  II,  pope,  98 

Paschal  III,  pope,  134 

Pa  via,  battle  of,  195,  196 

Pepin,  king  of  the  Franks,  34,  35, 

36,  37 

Peter's  Pence  99 

Peter  of  Aragon,  king  of  Sicily,  188 
Peter  the  Hermit,  116,  120 
Petrarch,  198 

Philip  I,  king  of  France,  102,  119 
Philip   Augustus,   king   of   France, 

103,  104,  136,  138 
Philip  IV,  king  of  France,  138,  139, 

140,  141 

Philip  V,  king  of  France,  142 
Philip  VI,  king  of  France,  143,  148 
Philip  II,  king  of  Spain,  225 
Philip  of  Swabia,  German  emperor, 

136 

Pilgrim  Fathers,  217 
Poitiers,  battle  of,  148 
Protestants,  212 

Queen's  tents,  167 

RAPHAEL,  199 
Renaissance,  197 
Richard  I,  king  of  England,  103 
Riparian  Franks,  8 
Robert,  duke  of  Normandy,  57 
Robert  Guiscard,  66,  67 
Roderick,  king  of  the  Goths,  29,  30 
Rois  Faineants,  32 
Roger,  count  of  Sicily,  66,  67 
Roger  Borsa,  duke  of  Sicily,  67 
Roger  II,  king  of  Sicily,  67,  68 
Rollo  the  Northman,  55,  56,  57,  77 
Romance  languages,  46 
Romulus   Agustulus,    Roman   em- 
peror, 12 
Rurick,  59,  60 

ST.  AUGUSTINE,  21 

St.  Jacobs,  battle  of,  181 

St.  John's  Ambulance  association, 

124 

Salian  Franks,  8 
Salic  Law,  142 


INDEX 


243 


Savonarola,  Girolamo,  190,  191,  192 
Saxons,  conquest  of,  38 
Schmalkald  League,  212,  213 
Schwartz  Berthold,  199 
Seljukian  Turks,  131 
Sempach,  battle  of,  180 
Sicilian  Vespers,  188 
Siegfried,  king  of  Denmark,  6S 
Sigrid,  Queen,  79 
Silvester,  pope,  42 
Slaves,  86,  129 
Society  of  Jesus,  227 
Squires,  108 

States  General,  140,  162 
Stephen  II,  pope,  35,  36 
Stockholm  Bath  of  Blood,  223 
Strasburg,  Oath  of,  44,  45 
Sweyn  Forkbeard,  king  of  Denmark, 
70,79 

TACITUS'  "  Germania,"  51 

Tamerlane,  131 

Tancred  of  Hauteville,  66 

Tancred,  king  of  Sicily,  68,  189 

Tarick,  29 

Teias,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths,  16 

Tell,  William,  179 

Tetzel,  John,  208 

Theodoric,  king  of  the  Visigoths,  5 

Theodoric,  king  of  the  Ostrogoths, 

12,  13,  14 

Theodosius,  Roman  emperor,  2 
Thomas  a  Becket,  134 
Thyra,  queen  of  the  Danes,  70 
Tiberius  II,  Byzantine  emperor,  19 
Tolbiac,  battle  of,  9 
Tours,  battle  of,  33 
Trent,  council  of,  227 
Troyes,  treaty  of,  150,  157 
Truce  of  God,  90 


URBAN  II,  pope,  116,  117 
Urban  IV,  pope,  152,  188 


VALDAMAR  the  Great,  king  of  Den- 
mark, 71,  72 

Valdamar  II,  king  of  Denmark,  73 

Valdamar  IV,  king  of  Denmark,  73 

Vandals,  3,  4 

Varangians,  59 

Varangian  Guard,  64 

Verdun,  treaty  of,  46,  101 

Vassals,  82 

Victor  IV,  pope,  134 

Villains,  86,  129 

Vinci,  Leonardo  da,  199 

Vladimir  I,  grand  duke  of  Russia, 
64 

WAIBLINGS,  133 

Waldenses,  225 

Walter  the  Penniless,  120 

Wedmore,  peace  of,  58 

Welfs,  133 

Wenceslaus,  German  emperor,  1 79 

Westphalia,  peace  of,  182 

William  the  Conqueror,  58,  85 

William  Rufus,  119 

William  of  the  Iron  Arm,  66 

Winkelried,  Arnold  von,  180 

Wittikind,  Saxon  hero,  68 

Worms,  Concordat  of,  98 

Diet  of,  210 
Wycliffe,  John,  205 
Wycliffites,  225 

XERES,  battle  of,  29 

ZACHARIAS,  pope,  34 

Zeno,  Byzantine  emperor,  12 

Zwingli,  Ulrich,  215,  227 


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